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FOUNDATI ONS:

A St udy i n t he

Et hi cs and Economi cs of t he

Co- oper at i ve Movement .

PREPARED AT THE REQUEST OF THE

CO- OPERATI VE CONGRESS

HELD AT GLOUCESTER

I N APRI L, 1879.

Edi t ed by

THOMAS HUGHES, Q. C. , \

AND '

^ t ^

E. V. NEALE, y

and Revi sed 1915 by j ^

A. STODDART and W. CLAYTON. ,

Manchest er :

THE CO- OPERATI VE UNI ON LI MI TED,

HoLYOAKE House, Hanover St r eet .

1916.

Pr ef ace t o Revi sed Edi t i on.

THE power f or good ot any mov^ement must

necessar i l y be det er mi ned by i t s basi c pr i n-

ci pl es, but i t s pr ogr ess depends upon t he power

of appeal i n t hese pr i nci pl es t o at t r act t o i t s ser vi ce

men of t he hi ghest mor al and i nt el l ect ual t ype. The

co- oper at i ve movement has at t r act ed many such men,

and t o t hem owes i t s r eal pr ogr ess. Amongst t hose

who have ser \ ' ed i t i n t he past t her e st ands out , how-

ever , t wo pr e- emi nent f i gur es. The or i gi nal Manual

f or Co- oper at or s was t he j oi nt pr oduct i on of t wo men

who i ncont est abl y head t he l i st of co- oper at i ve i mmor t al s.

Many of us have yet t o r eal i se t he debt we owe t o Neal e

and Hughes. They wer e mor e t han t eacher s; t hey

wer e pr ophet s, and i n t hi s movement t he seer i s

i ndi spensabl e.

I n t he Pr ef ace t he f i gur es have been br ought up t o

dat e, as has al so t he Const i t ut i on of t he Cent r al Boar d.

Those por t i ons, t oo, of t he Manual deahng wi t h t he

Page 2 of 69

pr act i ce of co- oper at i on wer e wr i t t en f or t he pur pose of

meet i ng t he needs of co- oper at i on as expr essed at t he

moment . Wi t h t he passi ng of t i me and t he devel opment s

whi ch have t aken pl ace t he needs t hen expr essed have

been out gr own, and t her ef or e i n t he sect i on deahng wi t h

t he " Pr act i ce of Co- oper at i on " some chapt er s have been

omi t t ed and ot her s modi f i ed. At t he same t i me t he

Publ i cat i ons Commi t t ee of t he Co- oper at i ve Uni on r eal i sed

t hat t her e was much i n i t t hat was per manent and ought

: o be pr eser ved; t hat t her e ar e par t s of i t whi ch, how-

ever gr eat t he pr ogr ess of t he movement i n t he comi ng

6 Pr ef ace t o Revi sed Edi t i on.

year s may be, wi l l never be out gr own, and whi ch f or ms

a body of t eachi ng we cannot af f or d t o l ose. Nowher e

el se i n t he l i t er at ur e of t he movement ar e i t s pr obl ems

appr oached f r om t he same st andpoi nt ; nowher e has

a deeper not e been st r uck, or a hi gher appeal been made.

I t i s f i t t i ng, t oo, t hat t hi s vol ume — one onl y of a ser i es

t o be publ i shed — shoul d come f i r st , f or i n i t t he ser i ous

st udent wi l l f i nd r eveal ed t he r ock on whi ch t he st r uct ur e

of t he movement shoul d be r ear ed, and a r esponse t o

i t s t eachi ng wi l l suppl y t he most ef f ect i ve ant i dot e t o

t he gr oss mat er i al i sm whi ch i n l at er year s has eat en

l i ke a canker i nt o t he movement , obscur i ng i t s vi si on

and r et ar di ng i t s pr ogr ess.

A. STODDART.

W. CLAYTON.

August , 1915.

Thomas Hughes, Q. C.

Edwar d Vansi t t ar t Neal e.

Pr ef ace t o Fi r st Edi t i on.

I T has seemed desi r abl e t o expl ai n t o t hose who ar e

r esponsi bl e f or t hi s Manual , by way of pr ef ace, whence

i t comes, whom i t r epr esent s, and why i t i s put f or t h.

Whence i t came. — The pr esent pr oposal came f r om

t he Sout her n Sect i on of t he Cent r al Co- oper at i ve Uni on,

who, i n December , 1878, r esol ved t hat i t was desi r abl e t hat

a Manual shoul d be pr epar ed, and t hat an out l i ne shoul d,

i n t he f i r st i nst ance, be submi t t ed f or t hei r appr oval .

Thi s was done on Febr uar y 19t h, 1879, when t he f ol l owi ng

out l i ne was appr oved, and r ef er r ed t o t he Uni t ed Boar d : —

I nt r oduct or y — - Hi st or i cal Sket ch of Co- oper at i on.

Par t L — The Mor al Basi s of Co- oper at i on, and i t s

Rel at i ons t o —

( a) Rel i gi ous Fai t h.

( b) Ot her Phi l ant hr opi c Movement s.

( c) Soci al i sm, Communi sm, and ot her Pol i t i co- Soci al

Movement s.

Page 3 of 69

Par t I I . — The Economi cal Basi s of Co- oper at i on, and

i t s Rel at i ons t o —

( a) Compet i t i on.

( b) Cur r ent Economi c Theor i es.

( c) The St at e.

Par t I I I . — The Pr act i ce of Co- oper at i on — -

( a) I n Di st r i but i on.

( &) I n Pr oduct i on,

( c) I n Soci al Li f e.

12 Pr ef ace t o Fi r st Edi t i on.

Adopt i on by Cent r al Boar d. — At t he annual meet i ng

of t he Cent r al Boar d, hel d at Gl oucest er on Apr i l 12t h,

1879, t he above out l i ne was l ai d bef or e t he member s

f r om al l t he sect i ons, and adopt ed by t hem; and i t was

r esol ved t o r ecommend i t t o t he Congr ess t hen about t o be

hel d, i n or der t hat , i f appr oved, t he necessar y aut hor i t y

shoul d be gi ven f or i t s pr epar at i on and publ i cat i on.

Sanct i on by Congr ess. — Accor di ngl y, at t he Congr ess

hel d at Gl oucest er i n t he mont h of Apr i l , 1879, t he pr oposal

was br ought bef or e t he gener al meet i ng of t he r epr esen-

t at i ves of t he soci et i es i n uni on, and was unani mousl y

appr oved, and t he dut y of pr epar i ng and edi t i ng t he

Manual i n conf or mi t y wi t h t he appr oved out l i nes was, i n

t he f i r st i nst ance, ent r ust ed t o mysel f , wi t h t he Gener al

Secr et ar y, Mr . E. V. Neal e. On Mr . Neal e' s suggest i on,

t he Uni t ed Boar d r esol ved, on December 5t h, 1879 : " That

each Sect i on of t he Boar d be r equest ed t o appoi nt one, t o

act as a commi t t ee wi t h t he Edi t or s t o r evi se t he wor k. "

I t i s under t hi s aut hor i t y and super vi si on, t her ef or e, t hat

t hi s Manual i s now publ i shed.

I t wi l l t hus be cl ear t o al l r eader s acquai nt ed wi t h t he

const i t ut i on of t he Co- oper at i ve Uni on t hat ever y

pr ecaut i on has been t aken t o ascer t ai n and car r y out t he

wi shes of t he soci et i es who ar e member s of i t . To t hem

t he wor ds Sout her n Sect i on, Uni t ed Boar d, and Congr ess

wi l l be f ami l i ar ; but , as i t i s hoped t hat t hi s Manual may

r each many per sons not i n any way connect ed wi t h t he

Uni on, and havi ng no knowl edge of i t s hi st or y or con-

st i t ut i on, i t may be wel l her e t o gi ve some shor t det ai l s

on t hese poi nt s.

Or i gi n and Const i t ut i on of t he Co- oper at i ve

Uni on. — The Uni on, t hen, i s composed of soci et i es

r egi st er ed under t he I ndust r i al Soci et i es Act s, t he f i r st of

whi ch ( t he 15 and 16 Vi ct . , c. 31) was passed on June 30t h,

Pr ef ace t o Fi r st Edi t i on. 13

1852. ( At t hat t i me t her e wer e al r eady upwar ds of f or t y

soci et i es i n exi st ence, some of whi ch wer e r epr esent ed by

a Cent r al Boar d si t t i ng i n London — - of whi ch, per haps, t he

pr esent Uni on and Boar d may cl ai m t o be t he l egi t i mat e

successor s; but , f or pr esent pur poses, t he Act by whi ch

such i ndust r i al combi nat i ons wer e f i r st l egal i sed may be

t aken as a st ar t i ng poi nt . )

I t i s needl ess t o gi ve i n any det ai l t he hi st or y of t he

movement i n t he f i r st year s af t er t he passi ng of t he Act

whi ch l egal i sed i ndust r i al soci et i es. They gr ew and

t hr i ved apace under i t s pr ot ect i on, but soon began t o

under st and f r om t hei r own i ndi vi dual exper i ence t hat

some uni on bet ween t hem was necessar y, i f t he f ul l benef i t

of t he Act was t o be r eal i sed. What each soci et y had

Page 4 of 69

done f or i t s i ndi vi dual member s, a cent r al or gani sat i on

t o whi ch al l mi ght bel ong mi ght do f or t he soci et i es as a

body. The chance of i nj ur i ous r i val r y bet ween t hem

mi ght t hus be avoi ded, commer ci al advant ages mi ght be

obt ai ned, and t he sound pr i nci pl es and hi gh t one whi ch

char act er i sed t he ear l y associ at i ons mi ght be pr eser ved

and ext ended t o t he whol e body.

For some year s, however , t hi s desi r e f or uni on t ook no

def i ni t e shape, beyond conf er ences of del egat es f r om t he

Lancashi r e and Yor kshi r e soci et i es, whi ch wer e hel d f r om

t i me t o t i me — gener al l y on Good Fr i day i n each year . At

l engt h t he t i me f or a pr act i cal ef f or t seemed t o have come ;

and at t he conf er ence of 1863 — af t er t he 25 and 26 Vi ct . ,

1861- 2, had gi ven t o t he soci et i es a cor por at e exi st ence,

and al l owed one soci et y t o hol d shar es i n anot her i n i t s

r egi st er ed name — i t was r esol ved t o est abl i sh a cent r e of

suppl y, of whi ch ever y soci et y i n i t s cor por at e capaci t y

mi ght become a member . Accor di ngl y, i n t he aut umn of

t hat year * t he Whol esal e Soci et y of Manchest er was

f ounded and commenced busi ness. The necessar y capi t al

* The f i r st hal f year ' s account s ar e dat ed Apr i l , 1864.

14 Pr ef ace t o Fi r st Edi t i on.

was subscr i bed by f i f t y soci et i es, number i ng i n t he whol e

17, 545 i ndi vi dual member s.

The exper i ment was at once successf ul . The f i r st

bal ance sheet showed aver age w' eekl y sal es of ^^800. I t s

pr ogr ess up t o t he cl ose of 1880 may be gat her ed f r om t he

f act t hat i n t he Sept ember quar t er f or t hat year t he

aver age weekl y sal es wer e 70, 844. I n t he Mar ch of t hat

year 591 s oc i et i es , wi t h 333, 324 member s , hel d s har es i n

t he Whol es al e Soc i et y , whi c h had s uppl i ed goods dur i ng

t he quar t er t o 757 s oc i et i es and done a bus i nes s amount i ng

i n 1879 t o

2, 929, 456. Br anc hes hav e been es t abl i s hed

i n London and Newc as t l e, and pur c has i ng agenc i es i n

I r el and, Fr anc e, t he Uni t ed St at es , and s ev er al of t he

Br i t i s h Col oni es .

But we mus t r et ur n t o an ear l i er per i od — t o 1868, when

t he member s of s oc i et i es whi c h f or med t he Whol es al e

number ed i n t he l as t quar t er 74, 494, and i t s s al es f or t he

year amount ed t o

381, 462 onl y , i n pl ac e of t he l ar ge

number s quot ed abov e. St i l l , ev en t hen, t hos e who had

wat c hed t he gr owt h of t he mov ement f r om t he f i r s t f el t

t hat t he t i me had ar r i v ed t o s t i mul at e t he des i r e of uni on

f or ot her pur pos es t han t he ut i l i s at i on of j oi nt c api t al f or

t he pur c has e of goods i n t he bes t mar k et on t he mos t

f av our abl e t er ms . The i ni t i al s t eps f or t hi s obj ec t , whi c h

ar e des c r i bed i n t he pr ef ac e t o t he Repor t of t he Congr es s

f or 1869, wer e t ak en i n London, pr i nc i pal l y t hr ough t he

ex er t i ons of an i ndef at i gabl e v et er an of c o- oper at i on, now

unhappi l y l os t t o us , t he l at e Mr . Wi l l i am Par e. Com-

muni c at i ons wer e opened wi t h t he Conf er enc e Commi t t ee

of t he Lanc as hi r e and Yor k s hi r e Co- oper at i v e Soc i et i es ,

and, wi t h t hei r appr ov al and s uppor t , a Congr es s was hel d

i n t he Theat r e of t he Soc i et y of Ar t s , on May 31s t and t he

t hr ee f ol l owi ng day s of 1869, whi c h was at t ended by s i x t y -

t wo del egat es f r om f i f t y - s ev en s oc i et i es or c ompani es ,

t went y - t hr ee i n London or i t s i mmedi at e nei ghbour hood,

Pr ef ac e t o Fi r s t Edi t i on. 15

ai i d a c ons i der abl e number of v i s i t or s . I t l ed t o t he

appoi nt ment of a c ommi t t ee, whi c h af t er war ds c ombi ned

wi t h t he Lanc as hi r e and Yor k s hi r e Commi t t ee; and out

of t hi s c ombi nat i on ar os e, i n 1873, b\ ' r es ol ut i ons of a

Congr es s hel d i n Newc as t l e- on- Ty ne, t he or gani s at i on of

Page 5 of 69

t he pr es ent Co- oper at i v e Uni on.

The Uni on at t he end of 1914 i nc l uded s oc i et i es whi c h

subs c r i bed t o t he f unds of t he Uni on f or t hat y ear f or

car r y i ng on i t s wor k t he s um of

15, 242.

I t i s gov er ned by a Congr es s , hel d annual l y , c ompos ed

of del egat es el ec t ed by s ubs c r i bi ng s oc i et i es , and a

Cent r al Boar d of s ev ent y per s ons . The ar ea c ov er ed by

t he oper at i ons of t he Uni on i n Gr eat Br i t ai n and I r el and

i s di v i ded i nt o ei ght s ec t i ons , as under :

—

No. of No of

Soc i et i es . Member s .

I r el and ( ex c l udi ng Dai r j - , Agr i c ul t ur al , Spec i al ,

&c . ) 79

• 22, 518

Mi dl and 215 . . . 409, 650

Nor t her n 141 . . . 352, 149

Nor t h- Wes t er n 465 . . . 1, 217, 325

Sc ot t i s h 279 . . . 467, 270

Sout her n 201 . . . 498, 962

Sout h- Wes t er n 79 . . . 114, 672

Wes t er n 93 . . . 105, 594

Thi s Cent r al Boar d meet s t wi c e a y ear — i mmedi at el } ^

bef or e Congr es s , when i t ac c ept s r es pons i bi l i t y f or t he

r epor t t o be s ubmi t t ed, and af t er war ds * t o ar r ange f or

car r y i ng out t he i ns t r uc t i ons of Congr es s .

Sel ec t ed f r om t hi s Cent r al Boar d, and appr ox i mat el y

i n pr opor t i on t o i t s t ot al r epr es ent at i on, i s a Uni t ed

Boar d whi c h meet s at l eas t f our t i mes a y ear and i s r eal l y

t he ex ec ut i v e aut hor i t y of t he mov ement .

Eac h s ec t i on i s di v i ded i nt o di s t r i c t s , and i n eac h of

whi c h t her e i s an Ex ec ut i v e whi c h or gani s es l oc al c on-

f er enc es , c ar r i es on pr opaganda wor k , and br i ngs bef or e

t he Sec t i onal Boar d mat t er s t hat af f ec t t hem as a

i 6 Pr ef ac e t o Fi r s t Edi t i on,

di s t r i c t . The Sec t i onal Boar ds meet mont hl y , and t he

Conf er enc e As s oc i at i ons quar t er l y . The s ec r et ar y t o

t he Uni t ed Boar d i s al s o gener al s ec r et ar y of t he Uni on,

and i s i n r egul ar c or r es pondenc e wi t h t he s ec r et ar i es of

t he v ar i ous s ec t i ons who i n t hei r t ur n ar e i n c l os e t ouc h

wi t h t he v ar i ous as s oc i at i ons . The Uni on i s t hus , as i t

wer e, i n per manent s es s i on, al way s r eady t o gi v e adv i c e

and t ak e ac t i on wher ev er and whenev er i t may be

nec es s ar y or des i r abl e. The Uni on i s al s o i n c l os e t ouc h

wi t h t he c o- oper at i v e s oc i et i es i n ot her c ount r i es t hr ough

t he I nt er nat i onal Co- oper at i v e Al l i anc e, an or gani s at i on

suppor t ed by s oc i et i es f r om ot her t went } ^ c ount r i es .

I nt er nat i onal Congr es s es ar e hel d ev er y t hr ee y ear s , s o

t hat t he c o- oper at i v e mov ement i n al l l ands i s c l os el y

r el at ed and wor k i ng t oget her f or t he es t abl i s hment of

co- oper at i v e pr i nc i pl es and pr ac t i c es i n ev er y l and.

Now f r om t hi s Uni on t he f ol l owi ng Manual c omes .

Deal i ng as i t does wi t h pr i nc i pl es af f ec t i ng t he deepes t

sent i ment s of human nat ur e, and appl y i ng t hem, as i t

endeav our s t o do, wi t h unf l i nc hi ng l ogi c t o t he mat t er s

wher e men' s i nt er es t s ar e di r ec t l y c onc er ned, i t c annot be

ex pec t ed ei t her t hat t he f oundat i on f or c o- oper at i \ ' e

Page 6 of 69

act i on l ai d i n i t shoul d be uni ver sal l y accept ed b\ ' al l

member s of t he Uni on, or t hat al l shoul d agr ee i n t he

pr act i cal concl usi ons bui l t on t hi s f oundat i on. But t o

l ay a sol i d f oundat i on f or co- oper at i ve act i on and r ai se

upon i t , i n i dea, t he st r uct ur al devel opment of a soci al

syst em, whose qui et but al l - t r ansf or mi ng gr owt h may

r ecal l t he beaut i f ul l i nes appl i ed by Bi shop Heber t o t he

Templ e of Jer usal em —

No axe was hear d, no pond' r ous hammer s r ung —

Li ke some t al l pal m t he gr acef ul f abr i c spr ung,

t hi s was t he di f f i cul t dut y i mposed upon my col l eague

and mysel f by t he Congr ess whi ch asked us t o under t ake

t he pr epar at i on of a Manual f or Co- uper at or s on t he l i nes

Pr ef ace t o Fi r st Edi t i on. 17

st at ed above. We shoul d have been f al se t o t hi s dut y i f

we had l ai d any " ot her f oundat i on " t han t he one on

whi ch al one we bel i eve human pr ogr ess can f i r ml y r est ;

or i f , on t hat f oundat i on, we had pr esent ed a commer ci al

i nst ead of a soci al edi f i ce, as t he out come of co- oper at i ve

wor k.

I f t he Congr ess had desi r ed t o see co- oper at i on r ef er r ed

t o some ut i l i t ar i an basi s, or t he hopes of human pr ogr ess

i dent i f i ed wi t h t he gr i ndi ng down of l abour beneat h t he

Jugger naut of cheapness, i t shoul d have l ai d down a

di f f er ent pr ogr amme, and must have ent r ust ed t he pr e-

par at i on of t he Manual t o ot her hands t han our s.

I t does not f ol l ow, nor does ei t her of us ask, t hat t he

Congr ess, i n publ i shi ng t hi s Manual as edi t ed by us,

shoul d at t empt t o cl ot he i t wi t h an aut hor i t y t o whi ch

i t does not l ay cl ai m. The Manual i s wr i t t en t hr oughout

i n t he st yl e t he l east assumi ng possi bl e, namel y, i n t he

si ngul ar number , as i f t her e had been one edi t or onl y

i nst ead of t wo ; and i t never appeal s t o any aut hor i t y but

t hat of t he f act s adduced and t he r easoni ngs st at ed. I t

makes no at t empt t o pl edge any member of t he Uni on t o

any pr oposi t i ons beyond t hose l ai d down i n t he Rul es

and Or der s as t he basi s of t he Uni on. That i t wi l l hel p

t o spr ead our convi ct i ons of t he t r ue f oundat i on and

pr oper devel opment of co- oper at i on, we, bei ng our sel ves

convi nced t hat t he f oundat i on i s sol i d and t he devel op-

ment l egi t i mat e, bot h hope and expect . But we do not

ask t he Congr ess t o pass any ot her r esol ut i on about i t

t han t hat i t shal l be publ i shed as we have edi t ed i t . We

de- si r e no acqui escence ei t her i n our pr emi ses or our con-

cl usi ons, but one r est i ng on t he convi ct i on t hat t he

pr emi ses ar e t r ue and t he concl usi ons l ogi cal .

What has j ust been sai d wi l l , I t r ust , suf f i ce t o r emove

t he mi sappr ehensi ons whi ch I f i nd t o have been ent er -

t ai ned i n some quar t er s t hat , i n put t i ng f or t h t hi s Manual ,

B

i 8 Pr ef ace t o Fi r st Edi t i on.

Mr . Neal e and I seek t o nar r ow t he basi s of t he Co-

oper at i ve Uni on t o a cr eed of our own. Ther e i s anot her

and mor e i mpor t ant mat t er on whi ch i t seems advi sabl e

t o say a f ew wor ds, i n or der t o r emove, i f possi bl e, once

f or al l , mi sappr ehensi ons concer ni ng t he obj ect s and

pr i nci pl es of t he Uni on i t sel f .

These mi sappr ehensi ons ar e at pr esent t wof ol d. On

t he one hand, t hi s Uni on i s supposed t o be t he r epr esent a-

t i ve i n Engl and of t he movement known by di f f er ent

Page 7 of 69

names^by t he gener i c t i t l e of Soci al i sm. On t he ot her ,

i t i s l ooked upon as a mer e ef f or t of t he wor ki ng cl ass t o

t ake t he t r ade of t he count r y i nt o t hei r own hands and

car r y i t on f or t hei r own benef i t on t he ol d l i nes. Each

of t hese vi ews has t r ut h i n i t , but 3- et i s not t r ue, as i t i s

t he obj ect of t hese i nt r oduct or y r emar ks t o show as

shor t l y as possi bl e.

Fi r st , t hen, what i s t he movi ng power whi ch i nspi r es

and gi ves i t s omi nous si gni f i cance t o t he Soci al i sm of t he

Cont i nent and t hi s count r y ? I t i s undoubt edl y t he

hopel essness of t he sur r oundi ngs of l i f e f or t he vast

maj or i t y of t he peopl e under t he pr esent or gani sat i on of

soci et y i n al l Eur opean St at es. That or gani sat i on seems

t o t hese maj or i t i es t o have been expr essl y f r amed i n t he

i nt er est s of t he f ew who possess weal t h and power ,

agai nst t he many who have nei t her . And so f ar f r om

t her e bei ng any pr ospect of bet t er t hi ngs whi l e t hat

or gani sat i on i s l ef t st andi ng, i t woul d seem as t hough t he

gr eat mat er i al changes wr ought by t he conquest of st eam,

el ect r i ci t y, and ot her nat ur al f or ces, whi l e enor mousl y

i ncr easi ng t he weal t h at t he command of manki nd, have

onl y pl aced t hat weal t h and t he power and enj oyment

t hat go wi t h i t mor e absol ut el y under t he cont r ol of t he

f ew. So l ong as t he st r ong ar e al l owed t o gr ow st r onger ,

t he r i ch r i cher , at t he cost of t he weak and t he poor , t hi s

st at e of t hi ngs wi l l cont i nue; or r at her t he condi t i ons of

Pr ef ace t o Fi r st Edi t i on. 19

l i f e wi l l const ant l y become mor e and mor e i nt ol er abl e.

Ther ef or e, t hey say, i t must be swept away. Soci et y

must be r eor gani sed i n t he i nt er est and wi t h a vi ew t o t he

wel l - bei ng and wel l - doi ng of t he many. To t hi s end t he

St at e, whi ch has hi t her t o been t hei r oppr essor , must be

made t hei r ser vant , and, as a f i r st and necessar y st ep,

must become t he owner and di st r i but or of t he nat i onal

weal t h, bot h r eal and per sonal .

Thi s, i n a f ew wor ds, i s t he cont ent i on of t he peopl e,

waki ng up as t hey ar e al l over Eur ope t o a consci ousness

at once of t hei r own mi ser y and of t hei r own power . I t

i s f or mul at ed most sci ent i f i cal l y, as mi ght be expect ed,

i n t he St at e Communi sm of Ger many, as advocat ed by

Fer di nand Lassal l e, and pushed t o mor e ext r eme i ssues

by Kar l Mar x and hi s f ol l ower s. I t i nvol ves conf i scat i on

of t he possessi ons of t he r i ch by t he St at e, and t he

f or ci bl e r epr essi on of one gr eat cl ass of t he communi t y —

pr obabl y t he st r ongest , as woul d be pr oved i n t he t hr oes

of t he r evol ut i on by whi ch al one such a change coul d be

br ought about .

How f ar , t hen, i s our Engl i sh Co- oper at i ve Uni on i n

sympat hy wi t h t hi s vast and t hr eat eni ng cont i nent al

movement , whi ch no doubt woul d gl adl y cl ai m us as

f el l ow- wor ker s, and wi t h whi ch many amongst our sel ves

who do not l ook bel ow t he sur f ace have been r eady t o

i dent i f y us ?

I t must be f r ankl y admi t t ed t hat t he same mot i ve

power has been at wor k her e i n Engl and as i n Russi a and

Ger many. I t i s t he hopel essness of t hei r condi t i on under

t he pr esent soci al and commer ci al syst em of Engl and

whi ch has l ed t o t he bandi ng t oget her of our member s

i n t hi s Co- oper at i ve Uni on. They see, as cl ear l y as t he

f ol l ower s of Lassal l e or of Kar l Mar x, t hat under t hat

syst em t hey have no mor e chance i n t he f ut ur e t han i n

t he past or pr esent of r ai si ng t he condi t i on of t hemsel ves

20 Pr ef ace t o Fi r st Edi t i on.

Page 8 of 69

or t hei r chi l dr en ; t hat t he mai nspr i ngs of commer ce and

manuf act ur es, of pr oduci ng, buyi ng, and sel l i ng^ — i n

f act , t hat al l t he most pot ent mat er i al f act or s of moder n

l i f e ar e her e al so get t i ng i nt o f ewer and f ewer gover ni ng

hands; t hat under t hi s syst em t he st r ong ar e year by

year becomi ng st r onger , t he r i ch r i cher , at t he cost of

t he weak and poor ; and t hey desi r e as ar dent l y as any

Ger man Soci al i st or Russi an Ni hi l i st t hat t hi s st at e of

t hi ngs shoul d cease.

Agai n, t hey hol d as f i r ml y as any cont i nent al Soci al i st

t he bel i ef t hat t hi s can onl y be br ought about by associ a-

t i on amongst t he poor and weak, t hat t he wi der and

deeper such associ at i on can be made, t he mor e f i r ml y i t

can t ake hol d, not of t hi s or t hat i sol at ed por t i on, but of

t hei r whol e l i ves, t he sooner wi l l t he desi r ed change be

possi bl e. Ther ef or e t hey l ook f or war d t o, and desi r e t o

pr omot e i n al l ways, t he or gani sat i on of l abour as ar dent l y

as Four i er or Loui s Bl anc. Thei r successes hi t her t o, as

wel l as t hei r f ai l ur es, have onl y conf i r med t hem i n t hi s

f ai t h, t he f or mer bei ng cl ear l y due t o adher ence t o, t he

l at t er t o depar t ur es f r om, t he t r ue pr i nci pl es of associ a-

t i on, as t hey under st and t hem.

And t hey have done t hei r best t o l eave no doubt upon

t he quest i on what t hese pr i nci pl es, as t hey under st and

t hem, ar e. They ar e set f or t h as t he def i ni t i on of obj ect s

on p. 25 of t he Repor t of t he Congr ess hel d i n London, i n

an addr ess t o i t by mysel f . The accept ance of t hem by

t he Congr ess i r r ecor ded on p. 41 ; and t hey ar e st at ed as

t he obj ect s of t he Uni on i n t he f i r st of i t s Rul es and

Or der s, t o whi ch ever y member assent s by j oi ni ng i t .

They ar e as f ol l ows: —

" Thi s Uni on i s f or med t o pr omot e t he pr act i ce of t r ut hf ul ness,

j ust i ce, and economy i n pr oduct i on and exchange.

" i . By t he aboht i on of al l f al se deal i ng, ei t her [ a] di r ect , by

r epr esent i ng any ar t i cl e pr oduced or sol d t o be ot her t han what

i t i s known t o t he pr oducer or vendor t o be, or { b) i ndi r ect , by

Pr ef ace t o Fi r st Edi t i on. 21

conceal i ng f r om t he pur chaser any f act known t o t he vendor ,

mat er i al t o be knowTi by t he pur chaser , t o enabl e hi m t o j udge

of t he val ue of t he ar t i cl e pur chased:

" 2. By conci l i at i ng t he conf l i ct i ng i nt er est s of t he capi t al i st , t he

wor ker , and t he pur chaser , t hr ough an equi t abl e di vi si on amongst

t hem of t he f und commonl y known as pr of i t :

" 3. By pr event i ng t he wast e of l abour now caused by

unr egul at ed compet i t i on. "

They have been summar i sed by t he Gener al Secr et ar y

i n t he paper r ead by hi m, wi t h gener al appr oval , at t he

Congr ess hel d at Newcast l e i n t hi s year as t wof ol d.

1. Mor al — t o pr omot e t r ut h, j ust deal i ng, and equi t y.

2. Economi cal — t o pr event wast e i n pr oduct i on and ex-

change. And t hey ar e i n t r ut h onl y an appl i cat i on of t he

mor e compr ehensi ve summar y of pr i nci pl es l ai d down by

t he Soci et y f or Pr omot i ng Wor ki ng Men' s Associ at i ons,

of whi ch t he l at e Rev. F. D. Maur i ce was pr esi dent ,

namel y: —

1. That human soci et y i s a br ot her hood, not a

col l ect i on of war r i ng at oms:

2. That t r ue wor ker s shoul d be f el l ow- wor ker s, not

r i val s :

Page 9 of 69

3. That a pr i nci pl e of j ust i ce and not of sel f i shness

shoul d r egul at e exchanges.

I t woul d be di f f i cul t , pr obabl y, t o f i nd anyone who

woul d have mor e deepl y sympat hi sed wi t h t he Soci al i st s

of t he Cont i nent i n t he i deal of a hi gher soci al st at e af t er

whi ch t hey aspi r e, or mor e deci dedl y r ej ect ed t he means

by whi ch t hey seek t o at t ai n i t , t han t he l at e Mr . Maur i ce.

I cl ai m f or Engl i sh co- oper at or s gener al l y t hat t hey shar e

bot h t hese sent i ment s.

The ai m of our Engl i sh Co- oper at i ve Uni on i s, l i ke

t hat of cont i nent al Soci al i sm, t o change f undament al l y

t he pr esent soci al and commer ci al syst em. I t s i nst r ument

f or t hi s pur pose, as wel l as t hei r s, i s associ at i on. Her e,

11 Pr ef ace t o Fi r st Edi t i on.

however , t he hkeness ends. Our co- oper at or s, t hanks t o

t hei r Enghsh t r ai ni ng, do not ask t he St at e t o do any-

t hi ng f or t hem, beyond gi vi ng t hem a. f ai r f i el d, and

st andi ng asi de whi l e t hey do t hei r own wor k i n i t i n t hei r

own way. They want no St at e ai d — t hey woul d be

j eal ous of i t i f pr of f er ed. They do not ask t hat t he St at e

shal l asser t i t s r i ght , and r ecl ai m al l l and and ot her

nat i onal weal t h f or t he benef i t of al l ; t hey want no ot her

man' s pr oper t y, but onl y t hat t hey shal l not be hi nder ed

i n cr eat mg new weal t h f or t hemsel ves.

I n t hi s l i es t he br oad di st i nct i on, and her e t he ways

br anch of f . One t ype of Soci ahst woul d use associ at i on

f or conver t i ng t he St at e i nt o t he sol e nat i onal l andowner ,

capi t al i st , and empl oyer of l abour . The Engl i sh Co-

oper at i ve Uni on woul d use i t t o cont r ol and br i ng i nt o

obedi ence t o t he hi ghest mor al l aw t he pr ocesses of

pr oduct i on and di st r i but i on of mat er i al t hi ngs. The

di f f er ence — and i t i s f undament al and i r r econci l abl e- —

l i es i n t he uses t o whi ch t he same i nst r ument —

associ at i on — i s t o be put . I t woul d be as f ai r t o i dent i f y

t hose who bl ow up a house f ul l of peopl e wi t h t hose who

bl ow up a r ock whi ch i mpedes t r af f i c because bot h use

gunpowder , as t o i dent i f y t he Engl i sh co- oper at or wi t h

t he St at e Soci al i st because t hey al l use associ at i on.

The f act i s t hat co- oper at i on, as under st ood and pr act i sed

by t he Uni on, i s t he sur est pr ot ect i on f or Engl and f r om

t hose danger s t o soci et y and pr oper t y whi ch t he demo-

cr at i c wave i s t hr eat eni ng t o br i ng on many ot her nat i ons.

The second mi sunder st andi ng above r ef er r ed t o i s,

however , wi der of t he mar k t han t hat whi ch woul d

i dent i f y t he Co- oper at i ve Uni on wi t h St at e Soci al i sm, and

under pr esent ci r cumst ances mor e pl ausi bl e and mor e

danger ous. I t need not be conceal ed or deni ed t hat

per i l ous t i mes f or co- oper at i on ar e at hand. The com-

mer ci al success whi ch has r esul t ed f r om t he met hods of

Pr ef ace t o Fi r st Edi t i on. 23

t r adi ng al ways i n use amongst our uni t ed soci et i es has

gai ned t hem a host of i mi t at or s, who seem t o t hi nk t hat

some char m l i es i n t he wor d " co- oper at i ve, " and t hat

t he whol e of t hei r success was due t o combi ni ng t o

pur chase and enf or ci ng r eady- money payment s f or al l

goods del i ver ed.

I n al l ot her r espect s t hese bast ar d associ at i ons, f ounded

f or t he most par t by gambl i ng t r ader s, f ol l ow i n t he ol d

r ut s. Thei r f i r st obj ect s ar e pr of i t and cheapness, and

t hey compet e wi t h each ot her as r eckl essl y as any r i val

t r adesmen. The scandal ous f ai l ur es whi ch have al r eady

begun, and whi ch wi l l i nevi t abl y mul t i pl y, i nvol vi ng, i t

Page 10 of 69

i s t o be f ear ed, much l oss and mi ser y t o a number of

i nnocent per sons, wi l l soon br i ng t he name of co- oper at i on

i nt o di scr edi t , and meant i me may have a mal i gnant

i nf l uence on t he devel opment of a movement whi ch,

wi del y as i t has spr ead, and val uabl e as has been i t s

i nf l uence, i s st i l l onl y i n i t s i nf ancy.

I t i s, t hen, t he mai n obj ect of t he pr esent publ i cat i on

t o make cl ear t o al l whom i t may concer n t hat co-

oper at i on, as under st ood and pr act i sed by t hi s Uni on,

t hough i t t akes hol d, i n t he f i r st i nst ance, of buyi ng and

seUi ng, as t hat depar t ment i n human af f ai r s whi ch l i es

near est t o hand and most needs a new and r ef or mi ng

spi r i t , has ai ms out si de and above t r ade. Even i n t hi s

t r adi ng depar t ment i t comes i nt o di r ect conf l i ct wi t h

pr evai l i ng pr act i ce and t heor y, subst i t ut i ng " f ai r ex-

change " f or " pr of i t " and " f ai r payment " f or

" cheapness. " These, i t asser t s, ar e at t ai nabl e by wel l -

or der ed f el l owshi p i n wor k, but have never been at t ai ned,

and ar e pr ovi ng t hemsel ves ever y day mor e unat t ai nabl e,

by t he met hod of unr est r i ct ed compet i t i on.

But whi l e i t seeks i n t he f i r st i nst ance t o make t he

mat er i al busi ness of men' s l i ves — pr oduct i on, buyi ng, and

sel l i ng^ — whol esome and honest , i t does not st op her e.

24 Pr ef ace t o Fi r st Edi t i on.

I t s obj ect i s t o wor k out i n pr act i ce t he t r ue r el at i ons

bet ween man and man, whi ch can onl y be done by f r ank

acknowl edgment of t he gr ound upon whi ch human

soci et y i s based — t hat we must be f el l ow- wor ker s and not

r i val s, br et hr en of one f ami l y, t o whom i ndeed t he gr eat

i nher i t ance of t hi s ear t h has been gi ven, but onl y on t he

condi t i on t hat i t shal l be used and enj oyed i n t he spi r i t

and accor di ng t o t he wi l l of Hi m who cr eat ed i t .

I n t he ef f or t t o car r y out t hese pr i nci pl es t he Uni on has

f ound i t sel f f ace t o f ace wi t h t he deepest pr obl ems of

human l i f e, t hose whi ch ar e gener al l y known, i n f act , as

r el i gi ous. Our soci et i es have come t o acknowl edge t hat

t he mer e f act of member shi p i n a r et ai l st or e i nv^ol ves

mor e t han payi ng r eady money, at t endi ng once a quar t er ,

and dr awi ng di vi dends. As t he year s pass t hey f i nd

t hemsel ves const ant l y br ought i nt o new and mor e

i nt i mat e r el at i ons wi t h t hei r f el l ow- member s, i n t hei r

own associ at i on and i n t he Uni on. I n t he pr i mar y sense

of t he wor d, i d quod r el i gat , " t hat whi ch bi nds t oget her , "

t hey have al r eady f ound t hat co- oper at i on has been a

r el i gi on t o t hem. I t i s wel l f or t he nat i on t hat i t has

been so, f or t he i ndust r i al hi st or y of Engl and dur i ng t he

past f ew year s has made i t cl ear enough t hat unl ess t r ade

can be mast er ed and i nf or med wi t h a new spi r i t i t wi l l

dest r oy t he nat i onal l i f e ; and no spi r i t i s st r ong enough

t o mast er and r ef or m i t except t he r el i gi ous spi r i t i n t he

hi ghest sense, whi ch i s t he spi r i t of Chr i st i ani t y.

But r el i gi on i s not onl y t hat whi ch bi nds men t oget her ,

but t hat whi ch bi nds man t o what i s above hi m, t o t hat

whi ch he l ooks up t o and wor shi ps. I t must not t her ef or e

be supposed f r om anyt hi ng whi ch has been sai d, ei t her

her e or i n t hi s Manual , t hat t he compi l er s, i n cl ai mi ng f or

co- oper at i on a di st i nct l y r el i gi ous si de, suppose t hat any

co- oper at i ve uni on can be a subst i t ut e f or t he Chur ch of

Chr i st , or co- oper at i ve act i on f or t hat consci ous i nwar d

Pr ef ace t o Fi r st Edi t i on. 25

uni on bet ween men and t hei r Maker , whi ch i s r ehgi on

at i t s hi ghest power .

Page 11 of 69

Ther e i s t r ut h, no doubt , i n t he sayi ng, " l ahor ar e est

or ar e, " but onl y pot ent i al t r ut h. I t shoul d be wr i t t en,

not " est , " but " pot est esse. " * What we do cl ai m, t hen,

i s, t hat so f ar as out war d t hi ngs go — f or us men, i n

cont act wi t h t he vi si bl e t hi ngs of t hi s wor l d, whi ch we

ar e meant t o mast ei , t o use, t o enj oy — t hi s met hod of

f el l ow- wor k i s t he r i ght , and j ust , and t r ue, and t her e-

f or e t he r el i gi ous met hod, and t he onl y one whi ch wi l l

bi nd us t o our f el l ow- men, and t o t he Fat her of men,

and not di vi de us f r om one anot her and f r om Hi m.

What we do say, f ur t her , i s, t hat t hi s met hod of deal i ng

wi t h vi si bl e t hi ngs i s onl y possi bl e, i n t he l ong r un, f or men

who keep bef or e t hei r mi nds t he i deal of r i ght eousness,

t r ut hf ul ness, and br ot her l y l ove i n t he dai l y r ound of t hei r

wor ki ng l i ves — who, i n ot her wor ds, keep bef or e t hem-

sel ves t he set t i ng up of t he ki ngdom of God on ear t h as

t he pr act i cal goal of al l t hei r ef f or t s.

I t has been, no doubt , abl y mai nt ai ned of l at e, t hat t he

wor shi p of humani t y i s enough of i t sel f t o keep ahve t hi s

i deal of r i ght eousness, t r ut hf ul ness, and br ot her l y l ove,

and t o sat i sf y men' s spi r i t s i n t hei r devot i on t o t he

ser vi ce of manki nd. The ser vi ce of humani t y, or , we

pr ef er t o say, of our br et hr en, i s i nvol ved i n co- oper at i on;

and we gl adl y admi t t hat " he who ser ves men most "

i s t he best co- oper at or and member of our Uni on. We

pr ef er , however , t o r ead somet hi ng mor e i nt o t he f or mul a,

i n or der t o make i t hol d at al l t i mes, and under al l

ci r cumst ances. We woul d r ead i t , " he ser ves God

best who ser ves man most . " For t he wi t ness of al l

t i mes — and of none mor e t han our own t i me — t he

exper i ence of al l men' s hear t s and consci ences, and of

none mor e t han our own hear t s and consci ences —

* Not " i s, " but " may be. "

26 Pr ef ace t o Fi r st Edi t i on.

pr oves t hat he who woul d not get wear y of ser vi ng hi s

br et hr en, whom he has seen, must become awar e wi t hi n

hi msel f of a spi r i t whi ch he cannot see but may f eel —

a spi r i t hi gher t han hi s own spi r i t — hi gher t han t he

spi r i t s of al l ot her men — yet wor ki ng i n t hose spi r i t s,

and wi t h whi ch he and t hey must become one bef or e

t hey can f i nd and do t hei r t r ue wor k, or ent er i nt o t hei i

t r ue r est .

THOS. HUGHES.

Par t I .

THE MORAL BASI S OF

GO- OPERATI ON.

FOR A FULL TABLE OF CONTENTS,

By means of whi ch t he cour se of t he ar gument may be

f ol l owed i n i t s mai n out l i nes, see t he end.

FOUNDATI ONS :

A St udy i n t he Et hi cs and Economi cs

of t he Co- oper at i ve Movement .

Page 12 of 69

PART I .

Chapt er I .

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Rel i gi ous Fai t h.

TO t r ace t he connect i on bet ween co- oper at i on and

r el i gi on may seem t o many per sons at t he pr esent

day i nj ur i ous r at her t han benef i ci al t o i t , si nce

t hey l ook on co- oper at i on as a pr i nci pl e of uni on, whi l e

r el i gi on, not wi t hst andi ng t he " bi ndi ng " char act er

i mpl i ed i n i t s name, t hey have, unhappi l y, been used t o

t hi nk of mai nl y as a cause of di vi si on. Never t hel ess t o

poi nt out t hi s connect i on i s a dut y i mposed on t he edi t or s

of t hi s Manual by t he pr ogr amme adopt ed at t he Congr ess

of Gl oucest er ; and t he consi der at i on of what i s r equi r ed

i n such a wor k as t hat commi t t ed t o t hem wi l l , I t hi nk,

show t hat t he Congr ess was r i ght i n maki ng t hi s r equi r e-

ment .

Ever y i mpor t ant scheme of soci al r ef or m hi t her t o pr o-

posed has been f ounded on some t heor y about t he nat ur e of

man, hi s pl ace i n t he uni ver se, and dest i ny, whi ch ar e pr e-

ci sel y t he subj ect - mat t er s of r el i gi on. To conf i ne our sel ves

t o t he t wo most not ed moder n i nst ances: — Rober t Owen

30 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Rel i gi ous Fai t h.

f ounded hi s syst em on a concept i on of t he i nf l uence

of ci r cumst ances i n f or mi ng char act er , whi ch was af t er -

war ds f or mal l y adopt ed as a cr eed by t he body f or med by

hi m, cal l ed t he Soci et y of Rat i onal Rel i gi oni st s. Agai n,

Char l es Four i er l ai d down as t he basi s of hi s syst em a

t heor y of congeni t al i mpul ses, named by hi m " passi ons, "

i mpl ant ed i n man by hi s Maker , whi ch woul d f i nd t hei r

sat i sf act i on i n hi s pr oposed scheme of associ at i on, and

ensur e i t s success and t he gener al wel l - bei ng, by maki ng

l abour uni ver sal l y at t r act i ve. Bot h t hese gr eat r ef or mer s

f ounded t hei r syst ems on what was pr act i cal l y a new

r el i gi on, whence t he new or der of soci et y cont empl at ed

by t hem shoul d ar i se. Co- oper at i on, i f i t woul d be

r egar ded as a r easonabl e scheme of soci al r ef or m, must

f ol l ow t he l i ke cour se, onl y i n t he manner pecul i ar t o i t sel f ,

t hat i s, by showi ng t hat what i s new i n i t s pr oposal s

gr ows nat ur al l y out of what i s ol d.

I t has been t he speci al char act er i st i c of co- oper at i on t o

st ar t f r om t he pr esent , and l ook t o t he f ut ur e whi ch i t

ant i ci pat es as a st at e t o be sl owl y evol ved out of t he

act ual , by t r ansf or mi ng wi t hout r udel y dest r oyi ng i t .

Thi s pr ocess co- oper at or s have pr esent ed as t he onl y saf e

r oad t o per manent pr ogr ess. I f t he concept i on i s con-

f or mabl e t o t he t r ue nat ur e of t hi ngs, i t ought t o hol d

good i n r egar d t o r el i gi on, of whi ch, as has been sai d, i t i s

t he speci al f unct i on t o deal wi t h t he f undament al r el at i ons

subsi st i ng bet ween man and t he uni ver sal power wher eby

he i s sust ai ned. That i s, we ought t o f i nd i n t he r el i gi ous

f ai t hs subsi st i ng among men some one at l east , and t hat

not an i nsi gni f i cant , uni nf l uent i al f ai t h, whi ch wi l l suppl y,

i n concept i ons pr oper t o i t sel f , a sol i d basi s f or t he modes

of act i on t hr ough whi ch we t hi nk t hat co- oper at i on may

ef f ect t he soci al r ef or ms sought f or b} - i t s means. Now

what t hus ought t o be I shal l endeavour t o show i s t he

f act — - t hat t he most l i vi ng, i nf l uent i al r el i gi ous f ai t h

TJi e Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Rel i gi ous Fai t h. 31

exi st i ng at t he pr esent t i me — t he Chr i st i an r eUgi on — i n

t he concept i on whi ch f or med i t s hi st or i cal f oundat i on,

and i s common t o ever y body of any numer i cal i mpor t -

ance pr of essi ng t o bel ong t o i t , does suppl y such a basi s —

and t hat t he hi st or y of t hi s f ai t h has br ought t o t he f or e

Page 13 of 69

t hat appl i cat i on of t hi s concept i on whi ch makes i t ser ve

as a basi s f or soci al r ef or m, poi nt i ng i t out as t he t r ue

out come of t he r el i gi on.

I t i s not or i ous t hat f or many ages t he gr eat and hi ghest

ai m of Chr i st i ani t y was consi der ed t o be t he wi t hdr awi ng

of men, so f ar as was consi st ent wi t h t hei r human exi st ence,

f r om al l act i ve par t i n t he busi ness or pl easur es of ear t hl y

l i f e, i n or der t o f i x t hei r at t ent i on on an i nner l i f e of

pr ayer , pr ai se, and medi t at i on, wi t h act s of char i t y, as t he

f i t t i ng pr epar at i on f or an unendi ng f ut ur e exi st ence t o

f ol l ow t hi s l i f e. But t he si xt eent h cent ur y af t er t he

bi r t h of Chr i st br ought wi t h i t a gr eat modi f i cat i on

of t hese i deas, whi ch, begi nni ng among t he nat i ons pr o-

f essi ng a r ef or med Chr i st i ani t y, has gr adual l y ext ended

i t s i nf l uence over t hose who cont i nued t o adher e t o

t he ol d f ai t h. The opi ni on gr ew up t hat a l i f e of act i ve

i ndust r y, accompani ed by t he nat ur al pl easur es of f ami l y

uni on, i f i t be per vaded by t he spi r i t of l ove t o man, i s mor e

conf or mabl e t o t he wi l l of God t han a l i f e wi t hdr awn f r om

such empl oyment s and pl easur es, t hough spent i n a r ound

of pr ayer , pr ai se, and medi t at i on, di ver si f i ed by act s of

benevol ence.

Moder n soci et y, bot h i n Eur ope and Amer i ca, may be

sai d t o have been bui l t on t hi s i dea, whi ch has cont i nual ^

gai ned gr ound, t hr ough t he enor mous devel opment of

i ndust r y i n r ecent t i mes, st r engt hened by t he vast i ncr ease

of sci ent i f i c knowl edge, t i l l i t t hr eat ens t o expel as a f ool i sh

super st i t i on t he medi aeval i dea t hat t he t r ue obj ect of

i ndi vi dual l i f e i s t o si nk i t s i ndi vi dual i t y i n uni on wi t h

t he Di vi ne Bei ng.

32 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Rel i gi ous Fai t h.

Yet moder n soci et y i t sel f bear s wi t ness t o t he i mper -

f ect i on of i t s own i deal . Agai nst t hi s out bur st of i ndi -

vi dual i sm t he gr eat and r api d gr owt h i n t he pr esent

cent ur y of soci al i st i c syst ems, car r i ed, at l east i n t heor y,

t o t he ext ent of si nki ng i ndi vi dual possessi on i n common

pr oper t y, i s a pr ot est , f ul l of si gni f i cance t o t hose who

woul d t r ace i n t he i nvol ved cour se of human af f ai r s t he

f oot st eps of a Di vi ne gui dance. The subj ect wi l l be mor e

f ul l y consi der ed i n a subsequent chapt er . But I woul d

r emar k her e, t hat t hi s r ebuke t o t he excess of i ndi vi dual i sm

by t he common f eel i ng whi ch l eads t o t hese soci al t en-

denci es, has i t s deep r oot i n t he convi ct i on t hat man

f i nds hi s t r ue wel l - bei ng i n devot i on t o a bei ng hi gher

t han hi s own, whi ch per vaded t he r el i gi ous t hought of

t he Mi ddl e Ages, and gr ew up under t he shel t er of a vast

or gani sed syst em, t he pr ecur sor , I t r ust , of anot her

or gani sat i on dest i ned t o bear , i n t hese l at er days, f or t he

benef i t of manki nd, f r ui t s such as t hose unqui et days

coul d not have pr oduced.

The i deas whi ch I shal l endeavour t o t r ace t o t hei r

l ogi cal i ssue i n soci al i nst i t ut i ons ar e, t hen, not an ar t i -

f i ci al gr owt h f or ced on Chr i st i ani t y, but a nat ur al out come,

whose connect i on wi t h i t i s shown by a l ong hi st or i cal

devel opment . The Chur ch of t he Mi ddl e Ages mani f est ed

her sel f as a power f ul spi r i t ual i nf l uence f or del i ver i ng

man f r om t he bur den of hi s own sel f i shness i n a way

whi ch, i f i t di d not exhaust t he Di vi ne act i on, but f el l

shor t of what we hope t o achi eve, i s yet t o us an exampl e

of t he pr i nci pl e on whi ch i nst i t ut i ons f or t he common

good shoul d be f ounded, and an encour agement i n t he

di f f i cul t at t empt t o i nt r oduce t hem. She has been a

pi oneer , cl ear i ng away obst acl es, cut t i ng out pat hs,

t hr owi ng br i dges over r i ver s, and t hus pr epar i ng t he way

f or t he advance of t he mai n body, whi ch may occupy t he

l ands and ut i l i se t hem f or t he gener al good.

Page 14 of 69

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Rel i gi ous Fai t h. 33

Thi s pr el i mi nar y wor k t he Cat hoHc or gani sat i on of t he

Mi ddl e Ages has done f or us. I t has t aught us t he

enor mous power possessed by vol unt ar y associ at i ve ef f or t ,

when concent r at ed i n i nst i t ut i ons adapt ed t o gi ve ef f ect

t o i t . I t has shown us, i n i t s gr eat monast i c or der s, t hat

l ar ge bodi es of men can be hel d t oget her , wi t hout any

ext er nal compul si on, t o l i ve i n common a l i f e f r om whi ch

t he or di nar y mot i ve of i ndi vi dual i nt er est i s excl uded,

and i t s pl ace i s suppl i ed by mot i ves ent i r el y i ndependent

of t hi s i ndi vi dual i nt er est , r est i ng upon hopes whi ch l ook

f or t hei r f ul f i l ment t o a f ut ur e di scer ned onl y by t he eye

of f ai t h. I t has shown us t hat t hese r emar kabl e r esul t s

have been at t ai ned, not onl y i n some par t i cul ar ages,

under some pecul i ar condi t i ons of r ace, or cl i mat e, or

l ocal i t y, but i n al l par t s of t he ear t h, among ever y

var i et y of r ace or nat i onal char act er , and f or a l ong

successi on of gener at i ons, each r eady t o t ake up and car r y

f or war d t he wor k t hat i t s pr ecur sor s had commenced or

cont i nued ; wi t h no appar ent exhaust i on i n t he ef f i ci ency

of t hi s vol unt ar y' power , so l ong as t he ar bi t r ar y i nt er -

f er ence of t he St at e di d not oppose i t . I t has been l ef t

f or Chr i st i ani t } ' i n our age t o appl y t o or di nar y human

l i f e — whi ch Pr ot est ant s have decl ar ed t o be, i n t hei r

opi ni on, mor e t r ul y di vi ne t han t he monast i c l i f e — t hat

pr i nci pl e of or gani sed combi nat i on f or r eal i si ng a l i f e

consi st ent wi t h t he obj ect s accept ed by us as i t s t r ue

end, whi ch our Cat hol i c ancest or s syst emat i cal l y and

successf ul l y appl i ed t o est abl i sh t he monast i c or ascet i c

f or m of l i f e, bel i eved by t hem t o be t he most t r ul y

conf or mabl e t o t he Di vi ne wi l l .

We need not bi d f or cl oi st er ed cel l

Our nei ghbour and t he wor l d f ar ewel l ;

The common r ound, t he dai l y t ask

Wi l l f ur ni sh al l we ought t o ask :

Room t o deny our sel ves — a r oad

To br i ng us dai l y near er God ;

G

34 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Rel i gi ous Fai t h.

says, i n wel l - known wor ds, a poet of t he Chur ch of

Engl and. He expr esses t he f eel i ng common among t he

Pr ot est ant r el i gi ous communi t i es — a sent i ment whi ch I

r egar d as pr of oundl y t r ue, but r equi r i ng t o be qual i f i ed

by t he pr oposi t i on t hat , i n or der t o keep al i ve among men

gener al l y t he pr act i ce of t hi s di vi ne pr i nci pl e of sel f - deni al ,

i t i s i ndi spensabl e t hat t he cur r ent of t hei r l i ves shoul d

not cont i nual l y car r y t hem i n t he opposi t e di r ect i on. I n

ot her wor ds, t her e ar e want ed i nst i t ut i ons adapt ed t o do

f or r el i gi ous pr i nci pl e i n i t s appl i cat i on t o dai l y l i f e what

chur ches have done f or t hi s pr i nci pl e i n i t s appl i cat i on t o

t he act of wor shi p, and monast i c i nst i t ut i ons di d f or i t i n

i t s appl i cat i on t o t hat ascet i c l i f e, whi ch f or med t he i deal

of per f ect i on f or t he Mi ddl e Ages, and st i l l cont i nues t o

do, i n some measur e, f or t he l ar ge body who adher e ei t her

t o t he Gr eek or t he Roman communi on.

The exper i ence of t he cent ur i es whi ch have passed

si nce t he Ref or mat i on f ur ni shes what , t o me at l east ,

appear s t o be concl usi ve evi dence t hat — however com-

pl et el y t he l i ber t y of i ndi vi dual act i on may be secur ed i n

any communi t y, however gener al l y t he dut y of ever yone

t o " l ove hi s nei ghbour as hi msel f " and " do unt o ot her s

as he woul d be done by " may be admi t t ed by t he mem-

Page 15 of 69

ber s of t hat communi t y as i ndi sput abl e, and however

vast t he i ncr ease of mat er i al advant ages i n t hat com-

muni t y may be, t hi s l i ber t y wi l l not pr oduce among t he

mass of t he popul at i on a st at e cor r espondi ng t o t he i deal

set bef or e us by t he Lor d' s Pr ayer , whi ch ought cer t ai nl y

t o be t he Chr i st i an' s i deal , t hat " God' s wi l l shal l be done

on ear t h as i t i s i n heaven. " Or , i f t he cont r ar y be af f i r med,

I can say onl y t hat t he God whose wi l l i s supposed t o be

r eal i sed by such a soci al st at e as t hi s i ndi vi dual st r uggl e

f or exi st ence pr oduces, can be no bet t er t han t he

" Unconsci ous Bei ng" of Har t man; and t he sooner

manki nd can ar r i ve at t he sol ut i on of t he pr obl em of

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Rel i gi ous Fai t h. 35

exi st ence pr oposed by t hat hi gh pr i est of pessi mi sm, and

by a concent r at ed ef f or t of t hei r uni t ed wi l l s, put an end

ahke t o t he f r ui t of i ndi vi dual l i f e and i t s unconsci ous

r oot , t he bet t er .

But not so, I hope, have we l ear ned t he l esson of

Cal var y. Not t hi s phi l osophy of despai r ar e we, I t r ust ,

di sposed t o accept as t he out come of t he unnumber ed

ages si nce t he pat i ent ear t h began her unwear i ed r evol u-

t i ons r ound t he sun, set t i ng us, accor di ng t o Goet he' s

i nst r uct i ve epi gr am, an exampl e of t he spi r i t i n whi ch

we shoul d possess our soul s, whi l e she i naugur at ed t hat

l ong devel opment of ascendi ng f or ms of bei ng r ecor ded

i n t he l eaves of t he " St one Book. " * I ndi vi dual l i ber t y

i s a pr eci ous possessi on — a l at e gi f t of Ti me t o manki nd;

who, i ndeed, as yet , ar e f ar f r om havi ng gener al l y at t ai ned

i t , and when t hey have at t ai ned i t , ar e f or t he most par t

ver y f ar f r om knowi ng how t o make a good use of i t — i f

by a good use we mean such a use as i s consi st ent wi t h

t hat exampl e whi ch al l Chr i st i ans pr of ess t o set bef or e

t hemsel ves as showi ng t he spi r i t by whi ch human l i f e

shoul d be gui ded. How, t hen, ar e we t o make a bet t er

use of t hi s gr eat gi f t , of t he power whi ch, i n Br i t ai n and

many ot her count r i es t hat we cal l ci vi l i sed, men now

possess, t o wi el d i n ent i r e secur i t y of per son and pr oper t y

a command over nat ur al f or ces unexampl ed i n any f or mer

age, and yet i ncr easi ng wi t h ever y decade so r api dl y t hat ,

but f or ol d age and deat h, we mi ght i magi ne our sel ves

about t o be t r ansf or med i nt o bei ngs of some hi gher speci es

t han manki nd ? I r epl y — by i nspi r i ng t he body of sci ence

wi t h t he spi r i t of r ehgi on ; by usi ng t hi s mat er i al l i ber t y

as a means of l i f t i ng our sel ves i nt o t he spi r i t ual l i ber t y

* I f e' er I ' m i mpat i ent , I cal l t o mi nd

How pat i ent t he ol d Ear t h I f i nd ;

Who t ur ns on her axi s ever y day,

And t wi r l s r ound t he sun her year l y way.

Why am I her e, but t he l i ke t o do ?

Dear Lady Mamma, 1 f ol l ow you. — Fr ee t r ansl at i on.

36 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Rel i gi ous Fai t h.

of t he " sons of God" ; by subst i t ut i ng t he genui ne

f r eedom of wor ki ng t oget her f or t he spur i ous f r eedom of

wor ki ng agai nst each ot her ; and showi ng t hat man i s

as compet ent t o const r uct i nst r ument s of gener al wel l -

bei ng as he has unhappi l y pr oved hi msel f compet ent t o

const r uct t hose f ear f ul i nst r ument s of dest r uct i on — t he

i r oncl ad f l eet s, t he gi gant i c ar mi es, t he hundr ed- t on

guns, and weapons of pr eci si on, of moder n war f ar e.

The cl ai m t hat I make f or co- oper at i ve i ndust r y and

associ at ed l i f e, t o be t he t r ue out come of t he Chr i st i an

r el i gi on, i s not a cl ai m ant agoni st i c t o, or condemnat or y

of , or a subst i t ut i on f or , any pr evi ous phase of t hat

r el i gi on. I t i s si mpl y a f ur t her devel opment f or whi ch I

Page 16 of 69

t hi nk t he t i me i s now r i pe; a new mani f est at i on of t he

counsel s of God f or t he r edempt i on of man out of t he

sl aver y of t he f l esh t o t he f r eedom of t he spi r i t ; no mor e

opposed t o what has gone bef or e i t t han t he f r ui t i s t o t he

f l ower , or t he f l ower t o t he l eaf , or t han pr i mi t i ve

Chr i st i ani t y was i n i t sel f opposed t o t he Judai sm out of

whi ch i t spr ung. I t i s not a new f or m of wor shi p, or a new

phase of t heol ogi cal t eachi ng, but a new appl i cat i on of

t he spi r i t whi ch has ut t er ed i t sel f i n wor shi p and pr oduced

syst ems of t heol ogy. I t i s t he appl i cat i on of t hi s spi r i t

t o sol ve t he gr eat pr obl ems of pr act i cal l i f e; how t o

f i l l up t he gap bet ween r i ch and poor ; how t o dest r oy

t he ant agoni sm bet ween capi t ahst and wor ker ; how

t o make t he appl i cat i on of sci ence t o i ndust r y ease t he

t oi l of t he wor ker , i nst ead of oust i ng hi m f r om hi s

wor k; how t o pr event t he f act t hat t he l abour er has

made t he exi st ence of ot her men mor e f ul l of enj oyment ,

f r om r ender i ng hi s own l i vel i hood mor e pr ecar i ous. I t i s

t o ask Chr i st i ani t y t o do f or f r ee l abour , whi ch i t may be

sai d t o have cr eat ed i n t he nat i ons wher e i t has t aken

r oot , what i t di d f or sl ave l abour by suppr essi ng sl aver y.

To appeal t o i t t o cor r ect t he evi l s at t endant on

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Rel i gi ous Fai t h. 37

t he good of i t s own cr eat i on i s sur el y no unr easonabl e

demand.

The l i ght of Chr i st i ani t y ar ose on a wor l d of sl ave-

owner s and sl aves, a wor l d wher e t he f r ee l abour of men

dependent f or t hei r subsi st ence on wages f or med a ver y

i nsi gni f i cant par t of t he t oi l whi ch f i l l ed t he ci t i es of t he

Roman empi r e wi t h t hei r accumul at ed weal t h. The New

Test ament cont ai ns no condemnat i on of sl aver y. But

when t he mast er had l ear ned t o l ook upon hi s sl ave as a

" br ot her bel oved i n t he Lor d " t he days of sl aver y wer e

number ed. The mai nt enance of such 3 st at e of absol ut e

dependence and ar bi t r ar y power was l ogi cal l y so i ncon-

si st ent wi t h t he f eel i ng of spi r i t ual br ot her hood i nvol ved

i n t he i dea of a new bi r t h, by wat er and t he spi r i t , i nt o a

" new mor al wor l d " of t he sons of t hat God whose name

i s " Love, " t hat , as t hi s i dea t ook hol d on men' s mi nds,

i t nat ur al l y put an end t o what was t hus i r r econci l abl e

wi t h i t sel f .

Now, what Chr i st i ani t y has t hus done i n t he past , t hose

who r egar d i t as t he mi ght y agent pr ovi ded by God t o

r edeem men f r om t hat sl aver y of t he spi r i t out of whi ch

t he sl aver y of t he body spr i ngs — t he sl aver y t o sel f i sh-

ness — may f i t t i ngl y ask i t t o do f or t he pr esent and t he

f ut ur e. We who appeal t o Chr i st i ani t y t o evol ve co-

oper at i ve i ndust r y and associ at ed l i f e ar e, i n t r ut h, aski ng

i t t o t ame i nt o obedi ence t o t he l aw of br ot her hood, whi ch

i s t he l aw of r eason, t hose ener gi es t hat , l ef t t o t he l aw of

nat ur e, can pr oduce onl y " t he st r uggl e f or exi st ence "

known t o moder n pol i t i cal economy under t he name of

f r ee compet i t i on. I s t hi s r equest unr easonabl e ? Hi st or y,

I t hi nk, may assur e us t hat i t i s not .

Man i s at once a nat ur al and a super nat ur al bei ng.

He bel ongs t o nat ur e by hi s passi ons and hi s st r engt h,

and, as a nat ur al bei ng, i s i nvol ved i n t hat st r uggl e

f or exi st ence dependent on t he asser t i on of sel f , whi ch

38 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Rel i gi ous Fai t h.

i s t he l aw of al l nat ur al bei ng — t hat i s t o say, of ever y

cr eat ur e whi ch i s unabl e t o det er mi ne t he ends of i t s

exi st ence f or i t sel f , but f i nds t hem det er mi ned f or i t

by i t s const i t ut i on and i t s sur r oundi ngs. The wi l l of

such a cr eat ur e, when" i t has at t ai ned t o consci ousness,

Page 17 of 69

i s gui ded i n i t s act i ons by t he pl easur es or pai ns whi ch

st i mul at e i t t o do what i s usef ul , or det er i t f r om doi ng

what i s i nj ur i ous t o i t sel f i ndi vi dual l y; or wher e, as

wi t h bees and ot her soci al ani mal s, t he wel f ar e of t he

gr eat body of i ndi vi dual s depends on t hei r associ at i on

— st i mul at e i t t o do what i s usef ul , or det er i t f r om

doi ng what i s i nj ur i ous, t o t he soci et y, t hough t he

i ndi vi dual may be i n some cases sacr i f i ced i n t he pr o-

cess. But i n man t her e appear s a hi gher power , l i nked,

i t i s t r ue, by i nsensi bl e gr adat i ons wi t h nat ur al bei ng,

and dependent upon i t f or i t s own capaci t y t o act ,

but st andi ng above i t : a super nat ur al power of wi l l

whi ch det er mi nes i t s ends f or i t sel f , and uses nat ur al

power s, i n t he f r eedom of choi ce and wi t h t he per -

si st ency of del i ber at i on, t o do t hat whi ch i t has so

det er mi ned. Man possesses not onl y St r engt h and

Passi ons, but Reason. He i s not onl y st i mul at ed or

det er r ed by Pl easur e and Pai n, but i s capabl e of

r ej ect i ng pl easur es and accept i ng pai n f or t he sake of

obj ect s so di st ant or so vast t hat , i ndi vi dual l y, he can

scar cel y hope t o r eal i se t hei r accompl i shment , yet

del i ber at el y wor ks f or t hem, because t hey ar e t he

choi ce of hi s r eason, and t o hi m t he sat i sf act i on of hi s

r eason can become super i or t o t he bai t s of any nat ur al

pl easur es, or det er r i ng i mpul ses of any nat ur al pai ns.

Now t hi s gover ni ng Reason i s i n i t sel f essent i al l y a

pr i nci pl e of uni t y. I t has bui l t up sci ences, by per -

f ect i ng concept i ons whi ch can gi ve uni t y i n i dea t o t he

endl ess di ver si t y of appear ances pr esent ed t o us by

nat ur al bei ngs, t hr ough t he di f f er ent ways i n whi ch

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Rel i gi ous Fai t h. 39

t hey af f ect our bodi es by wl i at we cal l our senses;

and t hus has gi ven us a knowl edge cont i nual l y gr owi ng

mor e compl et e of t he modes of act i on of t hese bei ngs.

I t has cr eat ed St at es, i n or der , by t he uni t y of pol i t i cal

i nst i t ut i ons, t o set bounds t o i ndi vi dual sel f i shness,

and gi ve pr ot ect i on t o i ndi vi dual weakness. The

gr eat phi l osopher s of Gr eece, whi l e Gr eece was yet

f r ee t o act as wel l as t o t heor i se, saw i n t he per f ect i ng

of t hese pol i t i cal i nst i t ut i ons t he i nst r ument al i t y t hr ough

whi ch t hey hoped f or t he at t ai nment by manki nd, or at

l east by t he pr i vi l eged body of Hel l ens, of t hat compl et e

soci al uni t y whi ch was t he avowed t hough unat t ai ned

obj ect of t he pol i t i cal i nst i t ut i ons of Hel l as i n t hei r own age.

But t hey had sel ect ed a wr ong r oad, t hough t o a r i ght

end. Ti me unf ol ded, as t he out come of t hi s pol i t i cal

r oad t o uni t y, t he despot i sm of Rome. But at t he

epoch when t he vast machi ner y of Roman power ,

consol i dat i ng i t s own act i on under t he r ul e of August us,

showed at once how mi ght y t hi s sor t of uni t y coul d

become, and 3' et how l i t t l e i t sat i sf i ed what Gr eek

phi l osophy demanded f r om t he pr i nci pl e of uni t y appl i ed

t o human af f ai r s, t her e began t o be hear d a voi ce whi ch,

or i gi nat i ng i n a despi sed r ace, pr omul gat ed by men

who made no pr et ensi ons ei t her t o t he phi l osophi cal

i nsi ght of Gr eece or t he pr act i cal wi sdom of Rome,

and f i ndi ng a r esponse chi ef l y among t hose whom t he

gr eat cont emned, decl ar ed t hat t he pr i nci pl e of uni t y

was t o be sought f or f r om wi t hi n, and not f r om wi t hout ,

and depended, not on pol i t i cal i nst i t ut i ons, however

wi sel y i nst i t ut ed, but on t he uni on of t he wi l l of man

wi t h One who had submi t t ed t o be cr uci f i ed as a mal e-

f act or , t hat he mi ght r esol ve t he di scor ds of human

sel f i shness i nt o t he har mony of t he et er nal di vi ne l ove.

Fr om t he f ai t h i n t hi s mani f est at i on of t he i nf i ni t e

t ender ness of God t o man spr ung up t hat r i ch cr op

40 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Rel i gi ons Fai t h.

Page 18 of 69

of t ender sympat hy bet ween man and man whi ch

mar ked t he Chur ch of t he f i r st cent ur i es, and conquer ed

t he wor l d, as t he Emper or JuHan decl ar ed, " by t he

mi ni st r y of t abl es " ; by a soci al i nst i t ut i on, r est i ng on t he

f r ee wi l l of t hose who st r ove t o r eal i se i n t hei r own l i ves

t he t r ut h t hat " i t i s mor e bl essed t o gi ve t han t o r ecei ve. "

I t i s t o an ext ensi on of si mi l ar i nst i t ut i ons, r est i ng,

hke t he " mi ni st r y of t abl es, " on t he f r ee wi l l of t hose

who mai nt ai n t hem, t hat t he soci al r ef or mer who woul d

deduce hi s r ef or ms f r om t he Chr i st i an spi r i t appeal s,

as t he i nst r ument t o gi ve ef f ect t o hi s desi r es. He

l ooks t o such i nst i t ut i ons t o put an end t o t he pr esent

ant agoni sm bet ween t he owner of t he accumul at ed

l abour cal l ed capi t al and t he owner of t he pr esent

l abour , t o whi ch t hi s capi t al i s i ndi spensabl e, whi l e,

i n t ur n, i t i s i ndi spensabl e t o make t hat capi t al f r ui t f ul

of benef i t t o i t s owner s; or , bet ween t he man who

di st r i but es what ot her s want and t hose among whom

t he di st r i but i on i s made — an ant agoni sm t han whi ch

not hi ng can be mor e ent i r el y opposed t o t he spi r i t

ani mat i ng t he New Test ament , or mor e compl et el y

i ncapabl e of r emoval by l egi sl at i ve r egul at i ons, wi t hout

t he vol unt ar j ^ hel p of t he per sons f or whom t he l egi s-

l at i on i s made. Sur el y we ar e j ust i f i ed by hi st or y i n

bel i evi ng t hat , i n l ooki ng f or t he hel p r equi r ed t o t hi s

sour ce, we shal l not l ook i n vai n.

No one, pr obabl y, wi l l di sput e t hat t he Chr i st i an

spi r i t , i f i t i s br ought t o di r ect i t sel f ser i ousl y t o t hese

obj ect s, coul d accompl i sh t hem; t hat i s t o say, no

one who cal ml y t akes count of what t hi s spi r i t has done

i n t he past , and i s doi ng i n t he pr esent — f or t he f or ma-

t i on and suppor t of cat hedr al s, chur ches, monast er i es,

school s, col l eges, hospi t al s, al mshouses, f or t he pr omot i on

of t emper ance, t he suppr essi on of sl aver y, t he mi t i gat i on

of t he hor r or s of war , and i t s ul t i mat e r emoval , and

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Rel i gi ous Fai t h. 41

ot her benevol ent pur poses, i ncl udi ng t he spr ead of

Chr i st i ani t y among non- Chr i st i an nat i ons. That wi t hout

t hi s spi r i t t he t ask cannot be per f or med wi l l pr obabl y

be admi t t ed, even by t hose who hol d t hat t he spi r i t

may be separ at ed f r om t he name, and wi l l do i t s wor k

bet t er f r om t he separ at i on. No doubt t her e ar e, at

t he pr esent t i me, many — and among t hem ver y zeal ous

advocat es of soci al r ef or ms — who r epudi at e t he name

of Chr i st i ani t y, whi ch t o t hem symbohses onl y i nt ol er -

ance, r r eduht y, and super st i t i on. But i n so f ar as

t hese men ar e r eal l y ani mat ed by t he spi r i t t hat makes

soci al r ef or m possi bl e, t hey ar e Chr i st i ans wi t hout

i nt endi ng i t ; men who have t he spi r i t of Chr i st i n t hem,

by what ever name t hey choose t o cal l t hemsel ves;

and whom t hose who hol d t he Cat hol i c f ai t h i n t he

Di vi ne nat ur e of t hei r Lor d must r ecogni se as t r ue

chi l dr en of Hi m f r om whom al l l i f e pr oceeds, by t hat

mar k ascr i bed i n t he Gospel s t o Hi s own t eachi ng, " By

t hei r f r ui t s ye shal l know t hem. "

As t he ul t i mat e r esul t of Chr i st i ani t y, i f i t i s t o become

uni ver sal , must be t o mer ge t he pr esent di st i nct i ons of

Chr i st i an t heol ogy i n t he uni t y of a Chr i st i an l i f e, so t he

opposi t i on of t he Chr i st i an and non- Chr i st i an name must

mer ge i n t he har mony of a spi r i t whi ch i s not sat i sf i ed

wi t h any i nst i t ut i ons but such as exhi bi t i n act i on t hat

pr of ound sol i dar i t e of t he whol e wi t h ever y par t , and

ever y par t wi t h t he whol e, whi ch St . Paul hel d out

t o hi s Cor i nt hi an conver t s ei ght een hundr ed year s si nce

as t he r el at i on t hat shoul d subsi st bet ween t he member s

of t he body of Chr i st . But t hi s ant i ci pat ed uni ver sal i t y

of t he t i me when Chr i st i ani t y and Humani t y shal l be

Page 19 of 69

seen t o be i nt er changeabl e names f or t he same i dea,

does not make i t t he l ess i mpor t ant t o poi nt out t he

suppor t whi ch t hi s i dea has i n t he Cat hol i c f ai t h. The

behef t hat t he Et er nal Fat her mani f est ed t j Q us i n. t h^

42 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Rel i gi ous Fai t h.

per son of Chr i st what t he power under l yi ng al l nat ur al

phenomena i s i n i t s essent i al char act er , and what we

must be t o become l i ke Hi m, cr owni ng, as t hi s bel i ef

does f or t hose who hol d i t , t he l ong devel opment of

nat ur al and i nt el l ect ual f or ces, wi t h t he ant i ci pat i on

of an age when t he wi l l of man shal l f i nd i t s r epose i n

vol unt ar i l y accept i ng t he l aw of l ove, must be admi t t ed

t o af f or d a sol i d basi s f or t hat i dea of t he uni ver sal

br ot her hood of manki nd whi ch hi st or i cal l y ar ose out

of t hi s Cat hol i c f ai t h.

Now we must not f or get t hat t hi s Cat hol i c f ai t h sums

up t he r el i gi ous concept i ons of al l t he cul t i vat ed r aces of

manki nd. Rel i gi on has appear ed on t he ear t h under t wo

gr eat phases: ( i ) The bel i ef i n t he i mmanence of t he

Di vi ne i n t he wor l d and i t s i ncar nat i on i n man : ( 2) The

bel i ef whi ch set s God o\ ' er agai nst t he wor l d and man.

These concept i ons appear t o have sl umber ed t oget her i n

Egypt ; t hey di ver ged af t er war ds ; t he f i r st gi vi ng r i se t o

t he Ar yan, t he second t o t he Semi t i c r el i gi ons. But t hey

cr ossed and spont aneousl y uni t ed i n t he Cat hol i c f ai t h as

t o Chr i st ; wher e t he subl i me t r ust of t he Jew wedded

t he phi l osophi cal i nsi ght of Gr eece, and, al l yi ng i t sel f

wi t h t he pr act i cal sagaci t y of Rome, const i t ut ed what

must be cal l ed t he sci ent i f i c concept i on of r el i gi on.

On t hose who woul d separ at e t he devel opment of

Humani t y f r om t he devel opment of Chr i st i ani t y, we

vent ur e, t hen, t o ur ge, as f el l ow- st r uggl er s wi t h t hem i n

t he har d bat t l e agai nst egot i st i c i mpul ses, not hast i l y t o

r ej ect t he hel p whi ch t he hi st or y of Chr i st i ani t y of f er s;

l est i n t he endeavour t o gr asp t he f r ui t whi l st t hey spur n

t he t r ee t hat bor e i t , t hey shoul d si nk back f r om t he l aw

of l ove t o t he l aw of f or ce; and i nst ead of f oundi ng

uni ver sal l y l i ber t y, equal i t y, f r at er ni t } ' , and sol i dar i t y

as t hey desi r e, shoul d per pet uat e t hat " st r uggl e f or

exi st ence " out of whi ch t he Chr i st i an Chur ch emer ged.

Chapt er I I .

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Ot her

Phi l ant hr opi c Movement s.

BENEVOLENCE— goodwi l l t o ot her men— i s t he

I common st ar t i ng- poi nt of al l pl ans of soci al r ef or m,

t he r endezvous wher e al l soci al r ef or mer s must

meet . Fr om what ever si de t hey appr oach t hese i deas —

whet her t hey appeal t o t he concept i on of Chr i st i ani t y^

pr esent ed i n our f i r st chapt er , or t o any ot her concept i on

of i t ent er t ai ned, say, by member s of t he Gr eek or Roman

communi ons, or of any ot her pr of essedl y Chr i st i an body ;

or r est upon some gener al concept i on of r el i gi on; or ,

r ej ect i ng any r el i gi ous gr ound, appeal t o " a st r eam of

t endency " shown i n t he hi st or y of manki nd, or t o an} ^

ot her not i on of man' s t r ue nat ur e and t he conduct

sui t abl e t o i t , r est i ng on phi l osophy, on sci ence, or on

our common sense — f r om what ever si de t hey come, at

t hi s gat e of Benevol ence t hey must ar r i ve, as t he door

t hr ough whi ch t he way l i es t o soci al r ef or m. Wi t hout

goodwi l l t o men gener al l y no one woul d ever t r oubl e

hi msel f about t he i mpr ovement of soci et y.

But Benevol ence i s no st r anger among manki nd. She

i s qui t e at home i n our r ace, and has expr essed, and does

Page 20 of 69

expr ess her sel f , i n a t housand pl ans of goodwi l l , wi t h mor e

or l ess successf ul i ssues. I n what speci al r el at i on, t hen,

does t he i dea of co- oper at i on st and t o t hi s wi del y act i ve

pr i nci pl e ? I t hi nk t he r epl y must be t aken f r om t he

mot t o of Lor d St af f or d — because i t i s " Thor ough" ;

because i t st r i kes at t he r oot of al l t hose evi l s of whi ch

Benevol ence, i n her unceasi ng ef f or t s at t he pr esent day,

44 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o

i s onl y endeavour i ng t o keep under t hi s or t hat ever -

f r esh- gr owi ng of f shoot . To ant i ci pat e shor t l y what wi l l

be mor e f ul l y deal t wi t h i n subsequent chapt er s, I woul d

sa. y t hat whi l e Benevol ence has hi t her t o deal t onl y or

pr i nci pal l y wi t h t he use of i ncome by i ndi vi dual s, t he

co- oper at or set s bef or e her t he dut y of deal i ng — f i r st ,

wi t h t hat whi ch cr eat es i ncome, i n or der t o secur e t o al l

t hat shar e of i ncome t o whi ch by t hei r wor k t hey ar e

equi t abl y ent i t l ed; second, wi t h t he col l ect i ve use of t hi s

i ncome, wi t h a vi ew t o f or m such gener al condi t i ons of

exi st ence t hat t he i ncome of each i ndi vi dual may be abl e

t o pr oduce t o i t s possessor as gr eat benef i t s as i t i s capabl e

of af f or di ng, wi t hout i nt er f er i ng wi t h t he l i ke enj oyment

by ot her s. I n soci et y as i t i s, t he det er mi nat i on of what

i ncome each i ndi vi dual shal l have, and what shal l be t he

gener al condi t i ons under whi ch i t has t o be used, has been

l ef t , wi t h except i ons, i mpor t ant , but yet onl y except i ons

i n t he case of cer t ai n wor ks of common ut i l i t y under t aken

at t he common cost , t o be det er mi ned by what , i n modem

pol i t i cal economy, i s cal l ed f r ee compet i t i on. The

co- oper at or mai nt ai ns t hat i t i s t he dut y of Benevol ence

t o obt ai n t hi s det er mi nat i on by r easonabl e agr eement .

I t may be obj ect ed t hat compet i t i on i s a l aw of nat ur e

t o whi ch al l must be subj ect , and t hat , t her ef or e, t o cal l

on Benevol ence t o f i ght agai nst i t i s t o i mpose upon her

an i mpossi bl e t ask. I admi t t he pr emi ss, but deny t he

i nf er ence.

That t he t endenci es whi ch l ead t o compet i t i on must

al ways exi st I do not deny. They bel ong t o t hat " st r uggl e

f or exi st ence " pr oduci ng t he " sur vi val of t he f i t t est , "

f r om whi ch man can no mor e wi t hdr aw hi msel f as a

nat ur al bei ng t han he can wi t hdr aw hi s body, or t he

mat er i al s he deal s wi t h, f r om t he i nf l uence of gr avi t y.

But why shoul d he abandon hi msel f and hi s doi ngs t o

t he one f or m of nat ur al act i on mor e t han he does t o t he

Ot her Phi l ant hr opi c Movement s. 45

ot her ? He has t aught i r on t o f l oat on wat er , t hough

gr avi t y or der s i t t o si nk; and made t he st ones whi ch

woul d, at t he bi ddi ng of gr avi t y, f al l t hr ough t he ai r i nt o

a r i ver bel ow t hem, af f or d hi m a saf e passage t hr ough t he

ai r above t he wat er . Thi s he has done not by get t i ng

r i d of t he f or ce of gr avi t y, but by st udyi ng i t s act i on, and

t he nat ur e of t he bodi es subj ect t o i t , t i l l he has di scover ed

how t o make gr avi t y secur e hi s pur poses i n pl ace of

t hwar t i ng t hem. The f act t hat t hi s pr i nci pl e of com-

pet i t i on must be admi t t ed t o be a l aw of nat ur e i s, t hen,

no gr ound f or t r eat i ng i t s oper at i on as wi t hdr awn f r om

t he cont r ol of r eason. For i t i s char act er i st i c of t he

act i on of r eason t o use nat ur al power s f or i t s own hi gher

pur poses, by subdui ng t hei r nat ur es i nt o obedi ence t o i t s

own hi gher nat ur e, wi t hout at t empt i ng t o dest r oy t hem.

Why shoul d i t not be abl e t o do as much wi t h t he nat ur al

f or ce of compet i t i on ?

No doubt we pass i n t hi s case f r om t he nat ur e whi ch

act s on man t o nat ur e i n man. We have t o deal wi t h t he

r esi st ance of t he i mpul ses whi ch nat ur al l y ur ge men t o

Page 21 of 69

act t o t hat power whose pr oper f unct i on i s t o gover n t hese

i mpul ses by har moni si ng t hem. The need of t hat appeal

t o t he i nf l uence of Chr i st i ani t y dwel t on i n t he f i r st chapt er

ar i ses, as I concei ve, f r om t he f act t hat r eason, al t hough

abl e t o poi nt out how men ought t o act , i n or der t o

har moni se t he di scor ds of conf l i ct i ng i mpul ses, and

conver t t he scor chi ng heat of compet i t i on i nt o a l i f e-

gi vi ng, cheer i ng war mt h, t he f ost er er of i nvent i on and

i ncent i ve t o pr ogr ess, r equi r es t he assi st ance of some

power capabl e of movi ng t he wi l l by t he i nf l uence of

emot i on, t o choose t o do what t he r eason poi nt s out as

f i t t i ng t o be done.

But assumi ng t hat by t hi s i nf l uence, or any ot her

mot i ve whi ch t hose who have no f ai t h i n Chr i st may

subst i t ut e f or t hi s f ai t h, t he wi l l s of men ar e t hus swayed

46 The Rel at i on of Co- oper al i on t o

— why, I ask agai n, shoul d t he nat ur al l aw of compet i t i on

pr ove l ess amenabl e t o t he cont r ol of r eason t han t hose

ot her nat ur al l aws whi ch Reason now uses, and i s l ear ni ng

ever y day mor e compl et el y how t o use, so as t o conver t

Nat ur e f r om her mast er i nt o t he obedi ent mi ni st er t o her

desi r es ?

What Benevol ence has t o do i n or der t o sat i sf y t he

r equi r ement s of t he co- oper at or , as I concei ve t hem, I

have al r eady st at ed — I hope wi t h suf f i ci ent cl ear ness f or

t he pur pose of t hi s chapt er . But i t may be desi r abl e t o

make a f ew obser vat i ons, whi ch, per haps, may be usef ul ,

on some poi nt s bear i ng on t he subj ect of t he r el at i on of

co- oper at i on t o ot her phi l ant hr opi c ef f or t s.

That whi ch has been al r eady done by Messr s. Lecl ai r e

and Godi n i n Fr ance, by t he Rochdal e Pi oneer s and ot her

di st r i but i ve soci et i es i n Engl and, and what t he var i ous

f r i endl y soci et i es and savi ngs banks and ot her i nst i t ut i ons

of a sel f - suppor t i ng char act er among t he poor er cl asses

have done and ar e doi ng i n Gr eat Br i t ai n and el sewher e,

pr oves t hat i f t he pr of i t s of pr oduct i on and di st r i but i on,

beyond t he necessar y char ge f or capi t al , became appl i ca-

abl e f or t he benef i t of t he wor ker s by whom t hey ar e

pr oduced, and of t he popul at i on among whom t hey ar e

di st r i but ed, a smal l per cent age of t he t ot al amount woul d

be suf f i ci ent , as an assur ance f und, t o pr ovi de agai nst al l

t he cont i ngenci es ( i ncl udi ng ol d age) f or whi ch Benevo-

l ence at pr esent , by a heavy bur den on a compar at i vel y

f ew benevol ent per sons, i nadequat el y pr ovi des i n her

mani f ol d phi l ant hr opi c i nst i t ut i ons. And yet t hose who

now devot e bot h t i me and money t o t he suppor t and>

super vi si on of t hese i nst i t ut i ons mi ght f i nd a mor e usef ul

f i el d f or t hei r benevol ent act i vi t y i n t he admi ni st r at i on of

t hese common f unds. For t hey woul d t hus conf er al l t he

benef i t s at t endi ng al msgi vi ng wi t hout i t s mani f ol d evi l s,

and t ur n what " bl esses t he gi ver mor e t han t he r ecei ver "

Ot her Phi l ant hr opi c Movement s. 47

i nt o t hat t r ul y Di vi ne qual i t y whi ch i s t wi ce bl est — whi ch

" bl esses hi m t hat gi ves and hi m t hat t akes. "

I n t r ut h, al t hough i t may, per haps, seem at f i r st t o

some phi l ant hr opi c per sons, t hat i n a r ef or med soci et y

such as co- oper at or s l ook f or t hey woul d f eel t hat

Ot hel l o' s occupat i on' s gone,

t r ue Benevol ence woul d gai n gr eat l y by bei ng r el i eved

f r om al l t hat par t of her wor k whi ch i s open t o doubt , and

suspi ci on of i mpost ur e, and al l owed t o expand i n act s of

ki ndness of a nat ur e t o admi t of no doubt — i n i mpar t i ng

Page 22 of 69

i nst r uct i on or af f or di ng pl easur e, i n t he sol ace of

suf f er i ng or sympat hy wi t h del i ght , i n hel pi ng af f l i ct i on t o

bear i t s bur dens, or addi ng t o t he j oyf ul ness of l i ght -

hear t ed i nnocence.

That t her e i s i n al l pl ans of soci al r ef or m an el ement

r epul si ve t o benevol ent f eel i ng, as i t i s t r ai ned by our

moder n habi t s, I do not deny — - namel y, t hat t hey deal ,

and f r om t he nat ur e of t he case cannot but deal , not

mer el y wi t h t he use, but wi t h t he acqui si t i on, of weal t h ;

wi t h mat t er s of busi ness ; wi t h buyi ng and sel l i ng. They

must f ace t hat " hi ggl i ng of t he mar ket , " t hose keen

at t empt s t o t ake advant age of t he necessi t i es or i gnor ance

of ot her s, agai nst whi ch Benevol ence bear s ener get i c

pr ot est . But , i n t r ut h, t hese i mmor al pr act i ces f ur ni sh

pr eci sel y one of t he st r ongest r easons why Benevol ence

shoul d i nt er f er e, i n or der t o ar r est t hi s out gr owt h of t he

spi r i t of compet i t i ve st r uggl e, by st oppi ng t he sour ce

f r om whence i t spr i ngs. That i t can be st opped I see no

r eason t o doubt . Even i n t he pr esent day t hese pr act i ces

do not af f ect al l commer ci al t r ansact i ons. The conduct of

many busi nesses i s f r ee f r om t hem, ei t her t hr ough t hei r

magni t ude, whi ch enabl es t hei r manager s t o f i x t he

condi t i ons on whi ch t hey wi l l act , or t hr ough t he gener al

pr act i ce i n t he par t i cul ar case, as wi t h assur ance com-

pani es, whi ch wor k upon t abl es at f i xed r at es. I n r et ai l

48 The Rel at i on of Co- oj ) er at i on t o

sal es, t he habi t of bar gai ni ng i s most unequal l y di f f used,

exi st i ng gener al l y i n some count r i es, and scar cel y at al l i n

ot her s. The most successf ul busi nesses have been car r i ed

on wi t hout i t , such, f or i nst ance, as t hat of t he l at e

Mr . St ewar t , of New Yor k, who had one pr i ce onl y f or each

cl ass of goods, and woul d di smi ss, i nst ead of r ewar di ng,

any empl oye who obt ai ned mor e. What has t hus been

done par t i al l y mi ght , i t woul d appear , be easi l y done

uni ver sal l y, among any bod} ' of men who shoul d make i t a

r ul e t o t ake no advant age of each ot her , but i n ever y

t r ansact i on t o st at e exact l y al l t hat t he ot her si de coul d

wi sh t o know. I n such a soci et y al l bar gai ns woul d be

made wi t h f ul l knowl edge of t he ci r cumst ances; and t he

abat ement of pr i ce, i nevi t abl e i f t he r at es f i xed by t he

sel l er i n any case cannot be obt ai ned, mi ght be ef f ect ed

by met hods not i nvol vi ng i ndi vi dual bar gai ni ng, such as

an auct i on.

When we consi der t he gr eat ef f ect on t he char act er of

any peopl e i nevi t abl y pr oduced by t hese dai l y t r ansact i ons

of buyi ng and sel l i ng, i t i s di f f i cul t t o name any mat t er

bet t er deser vi ng t he ear nest at t ent i on of t r ue Benevol ence

t han t he pur i f i cat i on of t he at mospher e of t r ade, by t he

gener al i nt r oduct i on of i nst i t ut i ons wher e or di nar y

busi ness shal l be conduct ed i n such a way as st r i ct

mor al i t y can appr ove.

I f t hese consi der at i ons ar e bor ne i n mi nd, I cannot but

hope t hat t he i ndi f f er ence whi ch many — I f ear I must say

most — moder n phi l ant hr opi st s show t o pl ans of soci al

r ef or m woul d gi ve pl ace t o a pr udent , but hear t y and

per sever i ng, det er mi nat i on t o ai d t hem by ever y means i n

t hei r power . The ef f ect of such a det er mi nat i on woul d, I

am sat i sf i ed, be most benef i ci al on t he pr esent advocat es

of soci al r ef or m. The sor t of ost r aci sm suf f er ed by t hei r

wi de- r eachi ng pr oposal s, af f ect i ng t he wel l - bei ng of

count l ess mi l l i ons, i f t he f ut ur e hi st or y of manki nd i s t o be

Ot her Phi l ant hr opi c Movement s. 49

a sequel wor t hy of t he enor mous per i od dur i ng whi ch t he

ear t h has r i pened i nt o f i t ness f or bei ng " or der ed and

Page 23 of 69

dr essed " by man, has t hr own some of t hose who pr of ess

t o cal l t hemsel ves co- oper at or s of f t he r ai l s, so t o speak.

Losi ng si ght of t he hi gh ai ms and nobl e pr i nci pl es of

soci al r ef or m, whi ch i s not hi ng i f i t be not r egar ded as t he

i nt r oduct i on of —

Nobl er modes of l i f e,

Wi t h sweet er manner s, pur er l aws —

such as shal l

Ri ng out t he dar kness of t he l and,

Ri ng i n t he Chr i st t hat i s t o be,

t hey have r epr esent ed co- oper at i on si mpl y as a saf e and

ef f i ci ent machi ner y f or enabl i ng consumer s t o obt ai n, by

uni on among t hemsel ves, such ar t i cl es as t hey desi r e t o

possess, r el i abl e i n qual i t y, at t he l owest possi bl e cost . I t

i s not wonder f ul t hat Benevol ence shoul d t ur n away f r om

such a par ody of t r ue co- oper at i on, wi t h an i mpat i ence

per haps somewhat unj ust t o t he i nt ent i ons of t hose who

have pr oposed i t , and wi t h gr eat l oss t o her sel f . Si nce i n

advocat i ng t he sel f - hel p on whi ch co- oper at i on r est s, and

pr event i ng i t f r om degener at i ng i nt o sel f i sh hel p. Bene-

vol ence woul d conquer f or her sel f a f i el d of act i on ent i r el y

f r ee f r om t he suspi ci on of sel f i sh mot i ves whi ch of t en

at t ends upon t he Benevol ence of al msgi vi ng.

The exami nat i on i n det ai l of t he t heor j ^ above not i ced

bel ongs t o a subsequent par t of t he pr esent Manual . I am

concer ned wi t h i t her e onl y i n r ef er ence t o t he mot i ves of

co- oper at i ve act i on, and t o t hat est r angement of t he body

of phi l ant hr opi st s f r om t hi s al l - i i npor t ant wor k, whi ch t he

consi der at i ons adduced i n t he pr esent and t he f i r st

chapt er wi l l , I hope, t end t o r emove. Then may we hope

t o see or gani sed i nt o a uni t ed phal anx t hose who ought t o

be wor ki ng hear t and hand i n t hi s cause as t he gr eat

pr obl em of humani t y, t he t r ue t ask, i n my j udgment , t g

D

50 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Ot her Movement s.

whi ch Benevol ence i s cal l ed i n t he pr esent age — a t ask t o

be car r i ed on i n r el i ance upon t hat Di vi ne ai d, whi ch has

never f ai l ed t hose who, compr ehendi ng t he dept h of

meani ng l yi ng i n t he apost ol i c concept i on of t he good

man, as a " wor ker t oget her wi t h God, " l ay t hei r hand t o

t he pl ough, and do not l ook back.

Chapt er I I I .

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Soci al i sm,

Communi sm, and ot her Pol i t i co- Soci al Movement s.

THE pr ecedi ng chapt er s have spoken of co- oper a-

t i on i n l anguage appl yi ng gener al l y t o pl ans of

soci al r ef onn. Thi s t hey have done, because i t

i s onl y when r egar ded as a mode of act i on havi ng t he

f ar - r eachi ng scope whi ch t hese wor ds i mpl y t hat t he

i dea of co- oper at i on acqui r es t he i mpor t ance cl ai med f or

i t bv t he wr i t er s of t hi s Manual , and t her ef or e can exci t e

t he i nt er est whi ch, i n t hei r j udgment , i t ought t o awaken.

I t may be asked, i f your concept i ons of t he ai m of co-

oper at i on ar e so ext ensi ve, how can i t be di st i ngui shed

f r om soci ahsm ? What i s soci al i sm but soci al r ef or m ?

^ I woul d r epl y, t he di f f er ence i s t hi s. Syst ems of

soci ahsm ar e essent i al l y t heor i es, embr aci ng t he whol e

r ange of r el at i ons subsi st i ng among men, whi ch, i n one

way or ot her , t hey pr opose t o br i ng i nt o conf or mi t y

Page 24 of 69

wi t h t hese t heor i es. But soci al r ef or m, as i t i s pr esent ed

i n t hese pages, and i s embodi ed i n t he name of co- oper a-

t i on, i s r at her a pr act i ce t han a t heor y. I t i s an at t empt

t o i nt r oduce i nt o t he wor l d, as we now f i nd i t , modes of

act i on embodyi ng pr i nci pl es, gener al l y admi t t ed among

t he nat i ons cal l ed Chr i st i an, even by t hose who mor e or

l ess compl et el y separ at e t hemsel ves ei t her f r om t he

Cat hol i c f ai t h i n Chr i st , or f r om t he Chr i st i an name, t o

be such as t hey ought t o act upon ; t hough, f r om var i ous

causes, t hej ei t her do not act upon t hem at al l , but onl y

hope t hat t hey may do so i n anot her wor l d, or act upon

t hem so i mper f ect l y and i nconsi st ent l y t hat t hei r act i on

52 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Soci al i sm,

has scar cel y any ef f ect i n pr oduci ng such r esul t s as ought

t o f l ow f r om t hei r pr i nci pl es. Our Engl i sh co- oper at i on,

so f ar , at l east , as i t has pr oceeded hi t her t o, i s an at t empt

f ounded on t he behef t hat t hese pr i nci pl es, when gener al l y

appl i ed i n pr act i ce, wi l l wor k out t r ue r el at i ons among

men by t hei r own oper at i on, and woul d be hamper ed

r at her t han ai ded by t he endeavour t o bui l d up a

compl et e t heor y of t hem bef or ehand.

Co- oper at i on r est s not on a new t heor y of human

conduct , but on t he devel opment of t he t endenci es whi ch

i t t r aces i n past hi st or y, and seeks t o gi ve mor e ent i r e

expr essi on t o i n t he pr esent and t he f ut ur e. The speci al

connect i on cl ai med f or i t wi t h Chr i st i ani t y i s, i n t r ut h,

onl y a cl ai m f or i t s hi st or i cal f i l i at i on wi t h t he pr ogr ess

of humani t y, whi ch has been hi st or i cal l y associ at ed i n

t he nat i ons of Eur ope and Amer i ca wi t h t hi s r el i gi on.

Whi l e, as t he pr evi ous chapt er s have ar gued, Chr i st i ani t y

does pr esent t o us concept i ons of t he Di vi ne act i on, and

t he mut ual r el at i ons of man spr i ngi ng out of t hat act i on,

emi nent l y adapt ed t o sust ai n our hopes and gui de our

st eps i n t he ar duous t ask whi ch t he i dea of soci al r ef or m

opens bef or e us.

But , t o t he di st i nct i on dr awn now bet ween co- oper a-

t i on and soci al i sm, t hi s speci al hi st or i cal connect i on,

i mpor t ant t hough i t i s i n i t sel f , i s not essent i al . The

\ essent i al di st i nct i on i s t hat co- oper at or s ar e t hose soci al

r ef or mer s who appr oach t he gr eat pr obl ems of soci al

r ef or m wi t h t hei r eyes open and t hei r hands f r ee.

Admi t t i ng t he gr eat ness of t he end whi ch t he pr ophet s

of soci al i sm have set bef or e t hei r di sci pl es, t hey cl ai m

f or t he end t o be gr eat er t han t he i nsi ght of t he pr ophet s ;

and, r ef usi ng t o be bound by t he wor ds of any mast er ,

i nvest i gat e t hei r soci al syst ems i n t he f r ee spi r i t of

sci ent i f i c i nqui r y, not bl i ndl y adopt i ng, nor havi ng any

^ pr ej udi ce agai nst t hem. The f r eedom bel ongi ng t o

Communi sm, and Ot her Pol i t i co- Soci al Movement s. 53

\ co- oper at i on enabl es t he co- oper at or t o use t hese syst ems,

or any par t s of t hem whi ch appear t o hi m usef ul , as means

f or t he bet t er gi vi ng ef f ect t o hi s ends ; onl y he does not

set t hem up as syst ems t o whi ch he i s t o pi n hi s f ai t h,

or by whi ch he i s bound t o r egul at e hi s conduct .

Four i er , f or i nst ance, unf ol ded, wi t h al l t he ant i ci pat i ng

mi nut eness of geni us, t he pr i nci pl es by whi ch manual

l abour may be made at t r act i ve, i nst ead of bei ng so

wear i some as i t now usual l y i s. Rober t Owen has dwel t

upon t he vast i nf l uence of t he sur r oundi ngs of men { or

ci r cumst ances as he sai d) on t he' r char act er s. I t i s

open t o t he co- oper at or t o st udy t he t eachi ngs of bot h

t hese emi nent t hi nker s; t o adopt t he suggest ed means

of r ender i ng l abour at t r act i ve; t o st udy car ef ul l y t he

i nf l uence of men' s sur r oundi ngs on t hei r char act er s;

Page 25 of 69

wi t hout basi ng hi s act i on upon t he assumpt i on t hat

" man' s char act er i s f or med f or hi m and not by hi m; "

or subst i t ut i ng f or t he maxi m, " Bear ye one anot her ' s

bur dens, so shal l ye f ul f i l t he l aw of l ove, " t he apopht hegm

" Dest i ni es ar e pr opor t i onat e t o at t r act i ons, " i n whi ch

Four i er summed up hi s t heor y. The f r ee spi r i t of soci al

pr ogr ess, pr oper t o Chr i st i ani t y, whet her i t adopt t he

Chr i st i an name or not , wi l l be at l i ber t y " t o pr ove al l

t hi ngs, and hol d f ast t hat whi ch i s good, " when i t

compr ehends, as I t r ust i t i s begi nni ng t o compr ehend,

what wor k l i es bef or e i t i f i t r eal l y woul d do God' s wi l l

on ear t h.

So i t may " pr ove, " but I cannot t hi nk t hat , as a

gener al r ul e, i t wi l l " hol d f ast " t hat syst em of com-

muni sm, whi ch has cont i nual l y appear ed wi t hi n t he

Chr i st i an Chur ch, const i t ut i ng t he out war d l i f e of t he

monast i c and convent ual or der s, and f or mi ng t he ext er nal

bond of uni on of a number of Pr ot est ant bodi es exi st i ng

i n t he Uni t ed St at es.

I ndeed, wi t h t he except i on of Onei da, al l t hese

54 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Soci al i sm,

communi t i es ar e ei t her , l i ke t he monast i c and convent ual

i nst i t ut i ons of Cat hohci sm, f ounded upon, or t end t o, a

pr act i ce whi ch maker t hei r adopt i on by manki nd gener al l y

i mpossi bl e, because, t o bor r ow St er ne' s pi t hy ant i t hesi s,

" i f i t peopl es heaven i t i mpeopl es ear t h " — t he pr act i ce

of cel i bacy. Ot her wi se, economi cal l y consi der ed, t he

r esul t s of t he mode of l i f e ar e, accor di ng t o Mr . Hi nd' s

descr i pt i on, gener al l y sat i sf act or y. Pl ent y appear s t o

be t hei r common char act er — a pl ent y obt ai ned wi t hout

bur deni ng t he i nmat es wi t h any excess of wor k, and t hat

not because al l t he member s ar e abl e- bodi ed; f or ,

besi des cont ai ni ng a l ar ge number of ol d peopl e, t hese

communi t i es, at l east i n many cases, r ecei ve f ami l i es of

t he chi l dr en of per sons j oi ni ng t hem, who become a

char ge on t he common f und. The not i on t hat t he

st i mul us of i ndi vi dual gai n i s necessar y i n or der t o pr o-

duce i ndust r y i s al so negat i ved by t hese account s, whi ch

uni f or ml y descr i be t he member s as i ndust r i ous. Whi l e

at Onei da, wher e t he advant ages der i vabl e f r om a uni t ed

home ar e appr eci at ed t o an ext ent not shown i n most of

t hese communi t i es, t he i nvent i ve f acul t i es of t he member s

ar e act i vel y exer ci sed t o di scover l abour - savi ng con-

t r i vances, whi ch, i n an i nst i t ut i on wher e al l par t i ci pat e

al i ke i n t he common pr oduce, ar e obvi ousl y an unqual i f i ed

advant age t o al l .

The advant age i s ver y gr eat , but t her e i s no suf f i ci ent

r eason why i t shoul d not equal l y exi st under a syst em of

associ at ed l abour , i n any communi t y whi ch pl aces at t he

command of i t s member s a var i et y of occupat i ons open t o

al l , so t hat t he l abour saved i n one empl oyment may be

t aken up by anot her , wi t hout sacr i f i ci ng t he nat ur al con-

st i t ut i on of t he f ami l y t o t he demands f or uni on i n wor k,

made upon us by t he pr ogr ess of i nvent i on and t he

gr owt h of capi t al . I n t r ut h, i f we except I car i a, al l t hese

communi st i c soci et i es, i ncl udi ng Onei da, have t he pr i mar y

Communi sm, and Oi l i er Pol i t i co- Soci al Movement s. 55

obj ect of r eal i si ng some speci al r el i gi ous t heor y; Onei da

bei ng di st i ngui shed by t he pecul i ar i t y t hat t he t heor y of

what t hey cal l t he syst em of Per f ect i on does not i nvol ve

t he ext i nct i on of t he human r ace as a necessar y con-

sequence of i t s gener al adopt i on. On t he ot her hand, i t

does i nvol ve t he same sor t of sacr i f i ce of t he f ami l y t o t he

communi t y, t hough not car r i ed out wi t h a consi st ency

Page 26 of 69

so compl et e as Pl at o pr ovi des i n hi s i deal r epubl i c.

But Pl at o wr ot e as a Hel l en f or Hel l ens, havi ng bef or e

hi s ment al vi si on t he condi t i ons of l i f e exi st i ng i n t he

smal l r epubl i cs of Gr eece, wher e a f r ee St at e meant a

f r ee t own. Al l hi s pr oposal s have i n vi ew t he so t r ai ni ng

a body of ci t i zens, who woul d const i t ut e t he ar med f or ce

necessar y t o pr ot ect t he l i ber t i es of al l agai nst aggr essi ve

nei ghbour s, as t o pr event t hem f r om abusi ng, t o t hei r

own pr i vat e advant age, t he absol ut e power over t he l i ves

and l i ber t i es of t he ot her ci t i zens, whi ch t hei r posi t i on

gave t hem. Wi t h keen i nsi ght i nt o human mot i ves, Pl at o

desi r ed t o f r ee t hese " guar ds, " as he cal l s t hem, f r om

t he subt l e t empt at i on t o sel f i shness l at ent i n t hat

pl ausi bl e excuse, " Don' t t hi nk I am wor ki ng f or mysel f ;

but i t i s my dut y t o r ai se my f ami l y. " Ther ef or e, he

sai d, t he " guar ds " must have no i ndi vi dual f ami l i es.

Al l of t hem must be one f ami l y, suppor t ed by t he body

of ci t i zens whom t hey pr ot ect , wi t h whose wel f ar e t hey

wi l l t hen be i dent i f i ed, and among whom, bei ng t hem-

sel ves f r ee f r om unj ust mot i ves, t hey can pr eser ve j ust

act i on.

Gi ven t he condi t i ons of Gr eek l i f e, t hi s t heor y of

Pl at o has much t o say f or i t sel f . Under t he al t er ed con-

di t i ons of our days t he case changes. I n t he gr eat St at es

whi ch moder n t i mes have made f ami l i ar t o us, wher e

or der has wedded f r eedom, and t he over power i ng st r engt h

of t he whol e uni t ed communi t y i s exer t ed, when necessar y,

t o r est r ai n t he gover ni ng body i n any associ at i on f r om

56 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Soci al i sm,

abusi ng t o t hei r own advant age t he power s commi t t ed

t o t hem f or t he good of al l , t her e i s no suf f i ci ent r eason

f or mer gi ng t he nat i onal dual i sm of human l i f e i n an

ar t i f i ci al uni ver sal i sm. The st r i ki ng exampl e of t he

Fami l i st er e, f or med at Gui se* by M. Godi n, has shown

t hat i t i s possi bl e t o at t ai n al l t he soci al advant ages of

communi st i c i nst i t ut i ons — t he car e and t r ai ni ng of

chi l dr en f r om t hei r ear l i est year s; t hei r subsequent

educat i on; t he pr ovi si on wi t hi n t he uni t ar y dwel l i ng,

t o t he degr ee per mi t t ed by t he means of i t s i nhabi t ant s,

of what ever can assi st want , pr omot e conveni ence, or

f aci l i t at e enj oyment ; t he cr eat i on among i t s i nmat es

of an act i ve concer n f or each ot her ' s wel f ar e, by t he

par t whi ch each i s abl e and i nvi t ed t o t ake i n t hi s or t hat

br anch of t he gener al admi ni st r at i on; — - whi l e yet t he

i nmat es possess a domest i c pr i vacy mor e compl et e t han

can be enj oyed by t he occupant s of or di nar y t own

dwel l i ngs; ear n var i ous i ncomes, accor di ng t o t hei r

capaci t i es; have ent i r e l i ber t y of di sposi ng of t hei r own

pr oper t y; and, i n shor t , r et ai n al l t he i ndi vi dual i t y of

nat ur al l i f e, super addi ng t o i t an associ at ed l i f e whi ch

makes t hi s i ndi vi dual l i f e mor e f ul l of enj oyment as i t

becomes l ess sel f i sh.

I t may be ur ged, per haps, t hat i f t he l ast pr oposi t i on

i s t r ue, a syst em of compl et e communi sm woul d i ncr ease

enj oyment t o t he hi ghest degr ee possi bl e, by ext i ngui shi ng

sel f i shness al t oget her . Thi s was appar ent l y t he i dea of

Rober t Owen, who, i n consequence, bel i eved t hat t he

at t r act i ons of a communi st i c l i f e t o al l who ever ex-

per i enced t hem woul d be so gr eat , t hat t he syst em, once

i nt r oduced, woul d r api dl y spr ead over t he ear t h. But he

over l ooked t he f act t hat t he happi ness whi ch an unsel f i sh

spi r i t does pr oduce t o i t s possessor , accor di ng t o t he

uni f or m exper i ence of al l who ever st r ove t o at t ai n i t ,

* Depar t ment de I ' A i sne i n Fr ance.

Page 27 of 69

Communi sm, and Ot her Pol i t i co- Soci al Movement s. 57

comes f r om wi t hi n, and cannot be i mpor t ed f r om wi t hout ,

^ whence can come onl y, t he occasi ons wher e t hi s spi r i t

may di spl ay i t sel f and t hus i ncr ease i t s ener gy by t he

oppor t uni t y f or i t s exer ci se. Now, t hese occasi ons woul d

be af f or ded by an associ at ed dwel l i ng, whi ch l ef t t he

homes of i t s i nmat es i n t hei r i ndi vi dual di st i nct ness, but

pl aced al ongsi de of t hem, as obj ect s of t he common car e,

i nst i t ut i ons conduci ve t o t he gener al wel f ar e, not l ess

compl et el y t han i t can be by a syst em wher e t hi s

domest i c l i f e i t sel f i s made a mat t er of common r egul at i on.

Mor eover , t he danger woul d be avoi ded of t hat const ant

j ar r i ng whi ch must be l i abl e t o ar i se bet ween t he gener al

r egul at i ons and t he var i et y of i ndi vi dual t ast es, wher ever

t he di st i nct i on bet ween publ i c and pr i vat e af f ai r s has

di sappear ed, by t he publ i c l i f e havi ng swal l owed up t he

pr i vat e l i f e.

N. Thus, t hen, t he r el at i on bet ween co- oper at i on, as a

syst em of associ at i on, and communi sm, r esembl es t hat

subsi st i ng bet ween cer t ai n mat hemat i cal l i nes, whi ch may

i ndef i ni t el y appr oach, but can never t ouch. The spi r i t

of t r ue co- oper at i on wi l l l ead t hose on whom i t has t aken

hol d t o f eel di ssat i sf i ed wi t h any appr opr i at i on t o

t hemsel ves of advant ages capabl e, by t hei r nat ur e, of

communi cat i on t o ot her s who ar e excl uded f r om t hem.

Obvi ousl y, i n pr opor t i on t o t he degr ee i n whi ch t hi s spi r i t

I S t he l i vi ng pr i nci pl e of conduct among any associ at ed

body, i t s i nt er nal const i t ut i on wi l l spont aneousl y

appr oach communi sm. Al l wi l l f eel t hemsel ves t o be

t r ust ees of t hei r nat ur al or acquhed power s f or t he

gener al good, and ask onl y t o shar e i n t hi s good equal l y

wi t h t hose t o whom t hey i mpar t i t . But bet ween

communi sm, as a r ul e, and t hi s communi st i c f eel i ng

t her e must r emai n al ways t he di f f er ence t hat t her e i s

bet ween l aw and gospel , bet ween t hou shal t and t hou

wi l t , bet ween t he f r eedom of t he sel f - gover ni ng wi l l

and t he yoke of submi ssi on t o a maj or i t y.

58 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Soci al i sm,

The r egar d f or i ndi vi dual f r eedom whi ch t hus di s-

t i ngui shes co- oper at i on f r om communi sm, di st i ngui shes

i t al so, t hough st i l l mor e emphat i cal l y, f r om al l at t empt s

t o at t ai n t he end of f r ee associ at i on by t he compul sor y

i nt er vent i on of t he St at e. Now, t hi s i s t he ai m of t he

t heor i es of soci al i st i c l egi sl at i on whi ch have, of l at e

year s, f asci nat ed t he sober j udgment of l ar ge masses

of t he popul at i on i n Ger many, i n whom l ong habi t of

subj ect i on t o St at e r egul at i on may be pl eaded i n excuse

f or t hei r not i on t hat t he St at e coul d do ever yt hi ng t hey

desi r e i f onl y i t woul d. But t he same i dea appear s t o

have t aken hol d al so on t he f r ee l i f e of t he Uni t ed St at es,

per haps, f r om t he opposi t e habi t of t he peopl e, t o l ook

on i t s own wi l l ut t er ed t hr ough t he bal l ot box, as

i r r esi st i bl e. The obj ect i on t o t hi s syst em, i n t he

peacef ul f or m pr oposed by Fer di nand Lassal l e, who

ur ged onl y t hat t he St at e shoul d use t he commom pur se

t o obt ai n f or t he mass of i t s member s t he means of sel f -

empl oyment , has been ver y cl ear l y st at ed by Dr . Schul ze-

Del i t zsch i n hi s speeches and l ect ur es. For , whence i s

t he St at e pur se, i f i t i s not swel l ed by f or ced cont r i but i ons

f r om t he r i ch, t o be r epl eni shed except by t he ver y

per sons t o whom i t i s t o gi ve empl oyment ? I f , how-

ever , t o avoi d t hi s di f f i cul t y, t he t heor y i s car r i ed t o

t he l engt h advocat ed by Kar l Mar x, who woul d conf i scat e

t he pr oper t y of t he r i cher cl asses f or t he benef i t of t he

gener al body, i nt o whi ch t hey ar e t o be compel l ed t o

si nk by t he mi ght of t he st r ongest , t hen, i n opposi t i on

t o such a t endency, however i t may or i gi nat e, i t must

be emphat i cal l y asser t ed, f r om t he poi nt of vi ew t aken

i n t hese pages, t hat onl y by f r ee sel f - hel p can co- oper at i on

Page 28 of 69

pr ocur e f or man t he good cl ai med i n t hem as capabl e

of bei ng pr oduced by i t . Because i t s whol e power comes

f r om t he accept ance by t he wi l l of man of t hat Di vi ne

Communi sm, and Ot her Pol i t i co- Soci al Movement s. 59

l aw of l ove, af f i r med by us t o be t he t r ue l aw of

humani t y, on whi ch t he wel l - bei ng of manki nd depends.

I f even i n pol i t i cal l i f e t hose " who t ake t he swor d shal l

per i sh by t he swor d, " as t he Gospel decl ar es, and

hi st or i cal exper i ence has conf i r med, wi t h a uni f or mi t y of

r esul t di sgui sed onl y by t he f act t hat i n many nat i ons

t he asser t i on of st r engt h has been accompani ed by t he

asser t i on of pr i nci pl es of et er nal l i f e whi ch have qual i f i ed

t he act i on of t hi s pr i nci pl e of deat h — assur edl y, t o t hi nk

t hat t he vi ct or y of r eason i s t o be ear ned by t he exer ci se

of f or ce, and t he r ei gn of l ove t o be t he nat ur al f r ui t of a

r ei gn of t er r or , must be t he maddest of mad del usi ons.

Not by cut t i ng t he Gor di an knot can t he geni us of

soci al pr ogr ess f ound i t s benef i cent empi r e. At t he

pr esent day, i n Engl and most cer t ai nl y, and, I bel i eve, i n

ever y Chr i st i an Eur opean count r y, except , per haps,

Russi a, and assur edl y i n t he Uni t ed St at es, t he r oad t o a

peacef ul soci al r evol ut i on, f r aught wi t h unmeasur abl e

benef i t s t o t he mass of t he popul at i on, and at t ended by

i nj ur y t o none — except i t can be cal l ed an i nj ur y t o shut

men out f r om t he hope of f ut ur e gai ns t o be made out of

ot her men' s pocket s — i s open t o t he whol e popul at i on,

by f r ee associ at i on, f or obj ect s whi ch r ecent exper i ence

has pr oved t hat associ at i on can successf ul l y ef f ect , i f onl y

t he masses, who may t hus benef i t t hemsel ves col l ect i vel y

and i ndi vi dual l y, ar e wi l l i ng t o associ at e. I f t he bl i nd-

( ^ ness of sel f i sh i nt er est pr event s t hem f r om so associ at i ng,

' al l t he l aws whi ch coul d be passed, t o gi ve t hem t he

benef i t s of associ at i on whi l e t hey ar e st r anger s t o i t s

^spi r i t , woul d be as power l ess t o qui cken t r ue soci al l i f e —

As ar e t he bl ast s of aut umn wi nd,

Whi ch t hr ough t he wi t her ed f oHage si ng,

To cal l f or t h f r om t he sapl ess boughs

The bl oom and ver dur e of t he spr i ng.

Par t I I .

THE ECONOMI CAL BASI S OF

CO- OPERATI ON.

PART I I .

Chapt er I V.

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on.

COMPETI TI ON has been mor e t han once admi t t ed

i n t hese pages t o be a l aw of nat ur e, a par t of t he

" st r uggl e f or exi st ence, " by whi ch al l nat ur e i s

per vaded, appl i ed especi al l y t o t hose consci ous agent s

who can compet e wi t h each ot her f or t he occupat i on of

any l ocal i t y, or t he enj oyment of any obj ect whi ch mor e

t han one of t hem may desi r e t o occupy or enj oy. The

mor e var i ed t he f acul t i es, t he mor e di ver si f i ed t he

sur r oundi ngs of any such cr eat ur es, t he st r onger must be

t he t endenci es t o compet i t i on cal l ed f or t h i n t he bei ngs

t hus ci r cumst anced; whose desi r es must i n such a case

i n t r ut h compet e wi t h each ot her , t he st r onger expel l i ng,

or , at l east , over power i ng t he weaker . Man possesses

Page 29 of 69

t he most var i ed f acul t i es of any i nhabi t ant of t he ear t h,

and f r om hi s f aci l i t i es of l ocomot i on, and t he abi l i t y

gr adual l y acqui r ed by hi m t hr ough t he pr ogr ess of

i nvent i on, t o t r anspor t t he pr oduce of one par t of t he

ear t h t o ot her di st ant par t s, can, i n a cer t ai n sense,

make t he whol e ear t h par t of hi s sur r oundi ngs. I n man,

t her ef or e, t hi s compet i t i on of desi r es nat ur al l y r i ses t o

gr eat er i nt ensi t y t han i n any ot her cr eat ur e known t o us.

But , i n i t sel f , so l ong as any body of men r emai ns i n t he

nat ur al st at e of ever y ani mal capabl e of exi st i ng, namel y,

t he st at e of havi ng access t o t he means of subsi st ence,

t he nat ur al l aw wor ks f or good, by t endi ng t o di ver si f y

64 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on.

t he pl easur es, and t hr ough t hi s di ver si t y t o st i mul at e t he

i ndust r i al act i vi t y of t he human bei ngs subj ect t o i t .

I n speaki ng of t he good at t endi ng t he nat ur al com-

pet i t i on of var i ous desi r es among men who have at t hei r

command r eady access t o t he means of subsi st ence, I

assume t he absence of vi ol ence. Of cour se, I am awar e

t hat t he assumpt i on i s ver y f ar f r om bor ne out by t he

hi st or y of manki nd. Onl y ver y sl owl y, and st i l l i m-

per f ect l y, has t he nat ur al di sposi t i on of t he st r onger

ani mal t o sei ze on what i t desi r es by pur e st r engt h been

br ought under such cont r ol as exi st s wi t hi n t he ci vi l i sed

St at es of t he pr esent day; wher e, however , t he good i s

qual i f i ed by evi l i n anot her way soon t o be st at ed.

But , assumi ng t he co- exi st ence of t hese t wo condi t i ons —

t he absence of vi ol ence and command of t he means of

subsi st ence — I say t he compet i t i on of desi r es among men

woul d be essent i al l y benef i ci al ; because, admi t t i ng of

sat i sf act i on onl y by exchange, i t st i mul at es t he i nvent i ve

f acul t i es of one man t o pr oduce somet hi ng desi r ed by

ot her men, t hat he may be abl e, by sat i sf yi ng t hei r

desi r es, t o sat i sf y hi s own. For t hus i s over come t hat

apat het i c i ndol ence i nt o whi ch savage r aces ar e pr one t o

f al l , shut t i ng t hemsel ves out by i t f r om i nt el l ect ual

pr ogr ess, and consequent l y, t oo, f r om mor al pr ogr ess,

whi ch i s i mpossi bl e when t he i nt el l ect sl umber s. Thus,

t oo, wi t h t he gr owt h of mor e numer ous want s may ar i se

al so t hat gr eat er r ef i nement , whi ch i s t he condi t i on of

aest het i c t ast e.

Long per i ods may el apse i n t he hi st or y of a nat i on

dur i ng whi ch t hi s nat ur al compet i t i on of desi r es cont i nues

t o oper at e t o t he gener al advant age of t he ci t i zens. I t

cont i nues t hus t o oper at e so l ong as, at l east i n t he gr eat

maj or i t y of cases, t her e i s no quest i on of t he means of

subsi st ence dependi ng on t he power of i ndi vi dual s t o

exchange t he pr oduce of t hei r own l abour f or t hat of

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on. 65

ot her men; so l ong as t he compet i t i on i s bet ween desi r es,

af f ect i ng onl y t he enj oyment s of l i f e, but not t he means

of l i vi ng; whi ch, t her ef or e, cannot be sai d t o exer ci se a

pr essur e gr eat er t han t hat heal t hy st i mul us t o i nvent i ve

act i on above not i ced. But , as popul at i on mul t i pl i es,

as t he cul t i vat i on of t he gr ound, f ol l owed as i t al ways has

been i n some shape or ot her by i t s appr opr i at i on, shut s

out an ever - i ncr easi ng number of t he popul at i on f r om t he

di r ect nat ur al means of obt ai ni ng t hei r subsi st ence, and

dr i ves t hem t o depend f or t hei r l i vi ng upon t hei r success

i n exchangi ng what t hey make onl y i n or der t o exchange

i t , t he nat ur al l aw of compet i t i on begi ns t o show i t s

i nadequacy t o sat i sf y t he r equi r ement s of r eason.

I nst ead of st i mul at i ng t he i ndust r y of t he wor ker t o

make i t mor e f r ui t f ul of benef i t t o hi m, by t he compet i -

t i on of hi s own desi r es agai nst each ot her , i t begi ns t o

Page 30 of 69

l essen t he benef i t s of t hat i ndust r y by t he compet i t i on of

one wor ker agai nst anot her , t o obt ai n t he means of l i vi ng

by under sel l i ng each ot her ' s l abour . The pr ocess once

begun has a cont i nual t endency t o ext end, and dr aw i n

per pet ual l y an i ncr easi ng pr opor t i on of t he popul at i on

under t he wheel s of a compet i t i on whi ch has ceased t o be

benef i ci al ' t o t hem, unl ess f r om any cause t he demand

f or wor k shoul d gr ow f ast er t han t he number of wor ker s,

when t he compet i t i on f or t hei r wor k woul d begi n t o t el l

i n t hei r f avour .

Now, t he chance her e st at ed must mai nl y depend upon

t wo ci r cumst ances — ( i ) t he r at e at whi ch capi t al t ends t o

accumul at e i n any count r y; ( 2) t he degr ee of ent er pr i se

i n i t s empl oyment exi st i ng i n t hat count r y; whi l e t hi s

ver y accumul at i on and ent er pr i se, so l ong as t hey ar e

empl oyed — not on account of t he whol e body of wor ker s,

but b} ' i ndi vi dual s who endeavour t o make out of t hem a

speci al advant age f or t hemsel ves — have a const ant

t endency t o dest r oy, by t he compet i t i on among t he

E

66 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on.

empl oyer s, t he benef i t s whi ch, i n anot her way, t hey t end

t o pr oduce.

When t he channel s t o whi ch t he empl oj ' ment of capi t al

shal l be di r ect ed ar e det er mi ned, not wi t h a vi ew t o t he

gener al i nt er est by a car ef ul st udy — of t he exi st i ng

demand f or any cl ass of ar t i cl es, of t he means of supph i ng

i t , of t he pr obabi l i t y of an i ncr ease of consumpt i on i n t hat

cl ass of obj ect s, and of t he pr event i on of wast e i n maki ng

ar t i cl es not want ed — but si mpt y by t he expect at i on

ent er t ai ned by t hi s or t hat per son, or gr oup of per sons, of

r eapi ng i ndi vi dual l } ' some speci al benef i t f r om t he

ent er pr i ses, t he det er mi nat i on what ent er pr i se shal l be

sel ect ed i s ver y l i kel y t o be based on t he knowl edge or

bel i ef t hat someone el se has made l ar ge pr of i t s out of t hat

par t i cul ar wor k; and, t her ef or e, t hat t her e i s what i s

cal l ed an " openi ng f or busi ness" — i n ot her wor ds, a

chance of snat chi ng some of t hese pr of i t s away b} ' of f er i ng

t o t he pur chaser somewhat l ower t er ms. Now, i n or der t o

uni t e t hese cheaper r at es wi t h t he desi r ed pr of i t , t her e i s

one easy way — t o di mi ni sh t he cost of pr oduct i on. Hence

t her e ar i ses out of t he st r uggl e of t he owner s of capi t al

amongst each ot her f or possessi on of t he br anches of

busi ness bel i eved t o be t he most pr of i t abl e, a t endency t o

r educe t he wages of l abour , t o whi ch t he wor ker s,

not wi t hst andi ng al l at t empt s t o ar r est i t by uni on f or t hi s

pur pose, may f i nd t hemsel ves dr i ven t o submi t , af t er

vai nl y usi ng up al l t hei r own r esour ces i n a f r ui t l ess

r esi st ance, on t he pr i nci pl e t hat hal f a l oaf i s bet t er t han

no br ead. The hi st or } ' of t he coal , i r on, and cot t on

i ndust r i es, dur i ng t he l ast f our or f i ve year s, f ur ni shes a

st r i ki r g i l l ust r at i on of t he pr oposi t i on advanced her e;

whi ch must not be conf used wi t h a deni al of t he gr eat

benef i t s t hat have been conf er r ed on manki nd t hr ough

i ndi vi dual ent er pr i se, wher e i t has been di r ect ed t o

per f ect i ng and devel opi ng new pr ocesses or di scover i es.

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on. 67

and t hus has mul t i pl i ed t he means of human wel l - bei ng,

by empl oyi ng t he l abour saved t o pr oduce some desi r abl e

obj ect hi t her t o unknown.

But t hi s gr eat t r i umph of human geni us, t he pr ogr ess

of i nvent i on, wi t h i t s mar vel l ous r esul t s, mul t i pl i ed as t hey

have been of l at e year s wi t h a r api di t y unknown, I may

Page 31 of 69

say undr eamt of , i n f or mer ages, f ur ni shes an addi t i onal

and ver y st r i ki ng i l l ust r at i on how i mpr act i cabl e i t i s t o

f ound a human soci et y sat i sf act or y t o t he demands of

r eason, upon t he act i on of t he nat ur al l aw of compet i t i ve

st r uggl e l ef t t o i t sel f . I t i s al most i mpossi bl e t o est i mat e,

wi t h any appr oach t o accur acy, t he i ncr ease i n t he

pr oduct i ve power s of t he i nhabi t ant s of Gr eat Br i t ai n

dur i ng t he l ast one hundr ed year s, ar i si ng f r om t he

i nt r oduct i on of st eam as a mot i ve power , and t he gr owt h

of machi ner y connect ed wi t h i t s use. St i l l mor e di f f i cul t

woul d i t be t o est i mat e what mi ght have been done by t he

use of t hi s " mi ni st r y of f i r e, " t o whi ch, pace Mr . Ruski n,

I l ook as t he gr eat magi ci an who shal l char m away i n t he

wor l d of har mony t he i l l s whi ch he pr oduces i n a wor l d of

st r uggl e — i f hi s mi ght y agency had been syst emat i cal l y

used f or t he common wel f ar e as r eason woul d pr escr i be.

But a power f ul pi ct ur e has l at el y been dr awn, not by one

per son, but by a Commi t t ee of t he Amer i can Soci al Sci ence

Associ at i on, i n a paper r ead at i t s meet i ng at Ci nci nnat i ,

i n 1878, of t he pr ogr ess of machi ner y i n t he Uni t ed St at es,

wher e t he changes br ought about have been mor e r api d,

and, t her ef or e, mor e st ar t l i ng t han wi t h us ; whi l e t he f act

t hat i n t he Uni t ed St at es enor mous t r act s of f er t i l e l and

ar e st i l l uncul t i vat ed; t hat , i n t he cul t i vat ed par t s t he

l aws of pr i mogeni t ur e and pr act i ce of ent ai l do not pr evai l ;

t hat no vast bodi es of men ar e wi t hdr awn f r om pr oduc-

t i on whi l e mai nt ai ned at t he cost of t he pr oducer , ei t her

f or mi l i t ar y or naval pur poses ; and t hat t her e i s no f et t er

on i ndi vi dual ent er pr i se, whi ch i s gener al l y r emar kabl y

68 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on.

act i ve, makes t he pi ct ur e of t he r esul t s whi ch have come

f r om t he pr ogr ess of i nvent i on under i t s i nf l uence t he mor e

st r i ki ng.

At t he commencement of t he pr esent * cent ur y ver y l i t t l e l abour -

savi ng machi ner y was i n use. Then t he f ar mer ' s best pl ough was of

wood, i r on- shod, dr awn by f r om one t o f our or mor e yoke of oxen;

one man t o dr i ve t he t eam, anot her t o hol d t he pl ough, and of t en

anot her t o keep i t cl ear . Resul t : say about l i acr es pl oughed

per day, by, say, t wo men. Now ar e used pl oughs i n gangs of t wo

or t hr ee, or mor e, of pol i shed st eel , dr awn by hor ses, cont r ol l ed

by one man who r i des at ease. Resul t : f i ve or mor e acr es per day,

pl oughed by a si ngl e man, and much bet t er t han by our f at her s.

Or st eam i s used, wi t h st i l l gr eat er r esul t s, pl oughi ng an acr e or

mor e an hour .

Our f at her s sowed t hei r seed by hand, t aken f r om a bag sl ung

f r om t hei r shoul der s. Now a machi ne, cont r ol l ed by any boy who

can dr i ve a si ngl e hor se, wi l l do mor e t han t hr ee t i mes t he wor k i n

a gi ven t i me, and f ar bet t er . Si mi l ar changes have been made i n

al l t he pr el i mi nar y pr ocesses of agr i cul t ur e.

When t he gr ai n was r i pe f or t he har vest our f at her s woul d go

i nt o t he f i el d wi t h t hei r si ckl es i n t hei r hands, and a l ong day of

har d wor k woul d r esul t i n one- f our t h of an acr e of gr ai n per man.

Now, a man wi l l t ake a r eapi ng machi ne dr awn by one or t wo

pai r s of hor ses, and r eap hi s t went y or mor e acr es per day, one

man now doi ng t he wor k of ei ght y but about f i f t y year s ago.

I n t he case of t he si ckl e t he day of our f at her s woul d- exceed,

r at her t han f al l shor t of , f i f t een hour s. But I est i mat e upon t en

hour s f or a wor k day.

The r eaper s her e r ef er r ed t o ar e t hose i n common use i n New

Engl and and ot her pl aces wher e t he l and i s qui t e uneven, r ough,

or hi l l y, havi ng cut t er s about f i ve f eet l ong; but f or t he gr eat

gr ai n r egi ons of t he West , f or t he smoot h, f l at , or pr ai r i e l ands of

I l l i noi s, or ot her sect i ons of t he val l ey of t he Mi ssi ssi ppi , and i n

Cal i f or ni a, cut t er s ar e made and i n common use of l of t . and 12f t .

i n l engt h; some 15f t . and i 8f t . , and even 24f t . l ong ar e used,

cut t i ng swat hes of t hese wi dt hs, and pr opor t i onat el y i s t he

Page 32 of 69

r eapi ng hast ened and muscul ar l abour di spl aced.

Our f at her s bound t he wheat i n sheaves af t er i t was cut , and

st or ed i t i n t hei r bar ns f or t he wi nt er ' s wor k f or t hemsel ves, t hei r

boys, and t hei r men- ser vant s, i n t hr ashi ng i t wi t h f l ai l s. Now,

machi nes ar e sent i nt o t he f i el d, whi ch gat her i t up and pi l e i t i n

* 19t h cent ur y.

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on. 69

gr eat heaps, wher e i t i s t aken by ot her machi nes, and i n a f ew

hour s, or a f ew daj ^s at most , i t i s t hr ashed, wi nnowed, sacked, and

r eady f or mar ket .

But i n Cal i f or ni a machi nes ar e made and used whi ch at one and

t he same t i me, i n movi ng over t he f i el d, cut t he gr ai n, t hr ash,

wi nnow, and sack i t , and t he f i l l ed sacks ar e l ef t i n r ows, wher e,

but a f ew moment s bef or e, st ood t he gol den gr ai n, unt ouched,

i nvi t i ng t o i t s har vest .

For our gr eat ( I ndi an) cor n cr op t he cor n pl ant er i s used, as i s

t he seed sower f or si mi l ar gr ai n. Then, i nst ead of usi ng t he hoe,

as di d our f at her s i n wor ki ng t hei r cor n, wher e a man f ound a har d

and l ong dav' s wor k i n hoei ng hal f an acr e, a man or boy wi l l now

seat hi msel f upon a cul t i vat or , wi t h a pai r of hor ses bef or e hi m,

and wor k an acr e an hour ; one man now doi ng wi t h t hi s machi ne

as much as coul d be done by t went y wi t h hoes. Pl ease bear i n

mi nd al so, t hat t he pl oughi ng wi t h our moder n pl oughs, and

cul t i vat i ng and wor ki ng wi t h our moder n cul t i vat or s and har r ows,

so i mpr ove t he condi t i on of t he gr ound as t o make a mar ked

i ncr ease i n t he cr op. Af t er t he cor n was har vest ed our f at her s

woul d t ur n a shovel upsi de down over a box, si t on i t , and, dr awi ng

t he ear s of cor n wi t h vi gour acr oss i t s edge, shel l 20 bushel s i n a

l ong day; and har d wor k i t was. Now, t wo men wi l l t ake t he

or di nar y i mpr oved cor n- shel l er , and shel l 24 bushel s i n an hour ,

or 240 bushel s i n a shor t day ; l eavi ng out of account t he di f f er ence

i n t he l engt h of t he day' s wor k, t hi s shows t hat si x t i mes as much

i s now done wi t h t l i i s machi ne as our f at her s coul d do by t he ol d

met hods. Wi t h t he t hr ee cl asses of hor se power machi nes, t wo

men wi l l shel l 1, 500, 2, 000, and 3, 000 bushel s r espect i vel y per

day of t en hour s ; one man and machi ne now doi ng t he wor k of 37^,

50, and 75 men r espect i vel y, wi t hout machi ner y.

So al so i n our i mpor t ant hay cr op, t he machi ne power i s f i r st put

i n, one man wi t h t eam cut t i ng as much gr ass as t wel ve men wi t h

scyt hes ; t hen f ol l ows t he t edder , wi t h a man and hor se t o scat t er

and t ur n i t , t o f aci l i t at e i t s dr yi ng, doi ng t he wor k of 20 men wi t h

t he hand f or k, and so much bet t er as t o r educe t he t i me bet ween

cut t i ng and har vest i ng at l east t went y- f our hour s. Then f ol l ows

t he hor se- r ake, r aki ng 20 acr es a day, whi l e a man wi t h t he or di nar y

hand- r ake can r ake but t wo. Her e t he machi ne and man can do

t he wor k of 12, 20, and 10 men r espect i vel y wi t h t he ol d appl i ances.

I n al l t hese oper at i ons i n agr i cul t ur e t her e i s a di spl acement of

l abour ; by i mpr ovement s i n machi ner y, of f r om one doi ng t he wor k

of t hr ee i n sowi ng t he gr ai n t o 12^ i n pl oughi ng, and 384 i n cut t i ng

yo The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on.

gr ai n at har vest , accor di ng t o t he wor k done, and t he cl ass of

machi ner y used f or t he par t i cul ar oper at i on.

And machi ner y di gs pot at oes, mi l ks t he cows, makes t he but t er

and cheese. Ther e i s now not hi ng i n f ood pr oduct i on wi t hout t he

l abour - savi ng pr ocess.

Our f at her s, wi t h al l t hei r boys and men- ser vant s, had a f ul l

Page 33 of 69

wi nt er ' s wor k i n t hr ashi ng t hei r wheat , shel l i ng t hei r cor n, &c. ,

and get t i ng t he smal l pr oduct s t o t he mi l l or t he mar ket . Now,

af t er machi ner y has done i t s wor k i n t he f i el d and bar n, t he i r on

hor se dr ags t he pr oduct over i t s r oads of st eel f or hundr eds and

t housands of mi l es, at l ess cost and i n l ess t i me t han i t t ook our

f at her s t o t r anspor t t he same t o di st ances not gr eat er t han f i f t y

mi l es. Upon t hose r oads wher e our f at her s had hundr eds and

t housands of men and t eams const ant l y empl oyed i n haul i ng

pr oduct s t o mar ket and goods t o t he count r y, nowher e now i s a

man or t eam so empl oyed — men and ani mal s ar e r el eased f r om al l

t hat l abour — - new f or ces t ake up t he wor k, gui ded and cont r ol l ed

by compar at i vel y f ew mi nds and hands. Even our cat t l e and

hogs ar e no l onger r equi r ed t o wal k t o t he shambl es; t he i r on

hor se t akes t hem t o t he but cher , l abour - savi ng pr ocesses sl aught er

t hem, dr ess t hem, pr epar e t hei r f l esh f or t he mar ket , f or t he

t abl e, and st op onl y at mast i cat i on, degl ut i t i on, and di gest i on.

To- day, one man wi t h t he ai d of machi ner y wi l l pr oduce as

much f ood as coul d be pr oduced by t he naked muscl e and t ool s of

a scor e of our f at her s. Ther e i s now no known l i mi t t o t he power

of i t s pr oduct i on. I n consumpt i on t her e i s no cor r espondi ng

i ncr ease. Our f at her s r equi r ed, obt ai ned, and used as many

ounces of f ood per day as we do. I t mi ght have been di f f er ent i n

ki nd and qual i t y — not hi ng mor e.

Not l ong ago t he f ar m f ound const ant empl oyment f or al l t he

sons of t he f ar m and many of t he cl i i l dr en of t he ci t y. Now, t he

f ar m f ur ni shes empl oyment f or but a ver y smal l number of i t s sons,

and t hat f or a ver y f ew weeks or mont hs at most i n t he year , and f or

t he r est wor k must be had i n t he ci t i es and t owns, or not at al l .

Her e we f i nd t he t r ue r eason f or t he st agnat i on i n t he popul a-

t i on of t he ol der agr i cul t ur al sect i ons, and abnor mal gr owt h and

cr owdi ng of t he ci t i es.

I n t he t i me of our mot her s t hey, wi t h al l t hei r daught er s, had an

abundance of empl oyment i n t hei r homes. Thr oughout our

count r y ever y f ar mhouse possessed i t s l ooms and spi nni ng- wheel s.

Fr om t he sheep r ear ed upon t he f ar m was t he wool t aken and

car ded by our mot her s r eady f or spi nni ng. The f i ax gr own upon

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on. 71

t he pl ace was b\ ' our f at her s br oken and hat chel ed by hand, and

made r eady by t he women- f ol k, who, day af t er day, week af t er

week, mont h i n and mont h out , f or f ul l y or mor e t han one- hal f of

t he year , wer e al l const ant l y empl oyed i n car di ng, i n spi nni ng, and

i n weavi ng t he wool l en and l i nen cl ot hs t hat cl ot hed t he f ami l y, or

wer e t r aded at t he st or e f or t ea and cof f ee, and sugar , or ot her

necessar i es or l uxur i es of l i f e. The househol d musi c of t hat t i me

was t he hum of t he l ar ge spi nni ng- wheel , t hat r ose and f el l as t he

spi nner r eceded or advanced, i n concer t wi t h t he mor e st eady

f l ow of t he t ones of t he f l ax wheel , as, wi t h f oot on t r eadl e, ot her

member s of t he f ami l y, or women- ser vant s, spun t he f l ax whi ch

was changed t o l i nen yar n or t hr ead. At t he same t i me t he

const ant l y- r epeat ed r at t l e of t he shut t l e coul d be hear d as t he

dext er ous hand sent i t f l yi ng t hr ough t he war p t o add anot her

t hr ead t o t he web, f ol l owed by t he st r oke of t he swi ngi ng beam.

These oper at i ons wer e i n const ant pr ogr ess i n al l t he f ar mhouses,

and i n a ver y l ar ge por t i on of t he t own houses.

The never - endi ng l abour of our gr andmot her s must not be

f or got t en, who, wi t h ni mbl e needl e, kni t our st ocki ngs and mi t t ens.

The kni t t i ng- needl e was i n as const ant pl ay as t hei r t ongues, whose

musi c ceased onl y under t he power of sl eep. Al l , f r om t he youngest

t o t he ol dest , wer e abundant l y empl oyed, and al l decent l y cl ot hed.

Now al l i s changed. Thr oughout t he l engt h and br eadt h of our

l and t he hand- car d, t he spi nni ng- wheel , and t he handl oom ar e t o be

f ound onl y as ar t i cl es wi t hout use, kept as cur i osi t i es of a past age.

Now t he car di ng machi ne, machi ne spi ndl es, and power l ooms

have t aken t hei r pl aces, and t he l abour of one pai r of hands,

Page 34 of 69

gui di ng and cont r ol l i ng machi ner y, t ur ns out a hundr ed yar ds of

cl ot h wher e but one yar d was pr oduced by our mot her s.

The occupat i on of our gr andmot her s al so i s gone ; no mor e does

t he kni t t i ng- needl e keep t i me t o t he musi c of t hei r t ongues. The

kni t t i ng machi ne, i n t he hands of one l i t t l e gi r l , wi l l do mor e wor k

t han f i f t y gr andmot her s wi t h t hei r needl es.

The consequence i s, t her e i s no mor e wor k at home f or our

f ar mer s' daught er s; t hey al so must seek t he t owns and ci t i es,

wher e t hey f i nd t hei r si st er s equal l y i dl e, and i n t housands ar e

f ound upon t he st r eet s spi nni ng yar n and weavi ng webs, t he war p

of whi ch i s not of wool , nei t her i s t he woof of l i nen.

So t he sewi ng machi ne has been gener al l y i nt r oduced, and wher e

f or mer l y al l t he si st er hood wer e exper t seamst r esses, now many

har dl y know t he use of t he needl e; t he machi ne r el i eves t hem of

t hi s l abour al so.

72 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on.

Our f at her s i n bui l di ng woul d begi n at t he st ump, and wi t h

t hei r hands wor k out al l t he pr ocesses of const r uct i on. Wi t h t hei r

whi p- saws t hey woul d t ur n t he l ogs i nt o boar ds ; t hey woul d hew

t he t i mber , r i ve and shave t he shi ngl es; dr ess t he t ongues and

gr oove t he f l oor i ng; dr ess and pr epar e al l t he l umber f or door s,

wi ndows, and wai nscot i ng; make t he door s and wi ndows wi t h

t hei r f r ames; wor k out moul di ngs, or nament s, and f i ni shi ng of

al l ki nds. Wi t h t hei r hands and f eet t hey wor ked t he cl ay f or

t hei r br i cks, and moul ded t hem by hand. A house car pent er

woul d t hen, wi t h hi s hands, f r om t he f or est , bui l d and f i ni sh a

house f r om si l l t o r i dge- pol e, and was f ur ni shed wi t h al l t he t ool s

t o do i t wi t h, many of whi ch he al so made.

Now al l t hese var i ous pr ocesses ar e wr ought out by machi ner y.

Machi ner y makes t he br i cks and saws t he l ogs; t he pl ani ng

machi ne does t he t ongui ng and gr oovi ng; t he moul di ng machi ne

makes t he moul di ng; t he door s, t he wi ndows, t he bl i nds, t he

shi ngl es — al l , ever yt hi ng i s done by machi ner y, and muscl e i s

r equi r ed onl y t o put t he par t s t oget her and i n t hei r pl aces.

Machi ner y does ni ne- t ent hs of t he l abour , and muscl e t he l i t t l e

r emai nder .

We wi l l not e t he wor k of some hal f - dozen of t he machi nes now

i n gener al use i n bui l di ng and car pent r y. The ci r cul ar saw,

cont r ol l ed by one man, wi l l saAv mor e i n one hour t han can be done

i n t en hour s wi t h a hand saw ; wi t h t he moul di ng machi ne one man

can wor k out mor e moul di ngs t han t en men by hand ; i n pl ani ng,

t he pl ani ng macl i i ne, cont r ol l ed by one man, wi l l do t he wor k of

f i f t een or t went y men wi t h hand pl anes; i n cut t i ng mor t i ses and

maki ng t enons, one man wi t h a machi ne wi l l do t he wor k of t en

men bj ' t he ol d met hods ; wi t h a j i g saw he wi l l do t he wor k of ei ght

men wi t h t he ol d t ool s ; and wi t h t he hand saw wi l l do t he wor k of

t wel ve men by t he ol d met hods. These f act s show a gener al

di spl acement of muscl e by machi ner y of at l east 90 per cent i n our

gr eat bui l di ng i nt er est s.

The Cr i spi ns of our f at her s' t i me wer e t hor ough boot and shoe

maker s, and a numer ous cl ass. But now, af t er l abour - savi ng

pr ocesses have ki l l ed t he ox and ski nned hi m, and t anned hi s hi de

and dr essed i t , i t does seem as i f t he l eat her was put i n at one end

of a machi ne, and at t he ot her end i s del i ver ed a shower of boot s

and shoes, caught by gi r l s and boys.

Unt i l wi t hi n t he l ast t went y year s al l t he wat ches wor n i n our

count r y wer e of Eur opean hand make, most l y Engl i sh and Swi ss — -

a busi ness i n t hose count r i es t hat empl oyed t housands. But wi t hi n

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on. 73

t he t i me ment i oned, i n Wal t ham, Mass. , and i n El gi n, 111. , t wo

Page 35 of 69

est abl i shment s commenced maki ng machi ne wat ches, f ol l owed

qui t e r ecent l y by some hal f - dozen ot her est abl i shment s i n ot her

pl aces; and now i n t hi s count r y t her e i s no mor e sal e f or hand-

made wat ches. Swass and Engl i sh ar e al i ke knocked out of t i me;

l ar ge communi t i es i n t hose count r i es ar e i n gr eat want — absol ut el y

dest i t ut e because of our machi ne movement . The hand wat ch-

maker al so must f i nd ot her empl oyment , i f he can.

Even t he gr ader s of our t owns, ci t i es, and r oads ar e di spl aced by

machi ner v. The pi ck and shovel , wi el ded by br awny ar ms, unt i l

wi t hi n a f ew year s wer e t he onl y f or ces used. Now t he st eam

paddy di spl aces br awn ; t he pi ck and shovel ar e t oo cost l y and t oo

sl ow. I n San Fr anci sco i t s hi l l s, cover i ng mi l es of t er r i t or y, have

been r emoved by l abour - savi ng pr ocesses. The st eam paddy,

cont r ol l ed by t wo men, di gs down and r emoves t he hi l l s at t he

r at e of t wo or t hr ee scoops t o t he car t l oad, and t hen i n t r ai ns

of a dozen or mor e car s ar e r un t o and dumped i nt o t he bays and

hol l ows t o be f i l l ed, compel l i ng t housands of muscul ar wor kmen,

wi t h t hei r pi cks and shovel s, hor ses and car t s, t o f i nd ot her

empl oyment .

Twent y- f i ve year s ago t he mi ner i n Cal i f or ni a and Aust r al i a

washed hi s gol d i n a pan, or i n a cr adl e i nt o whi ch he had pl aced

a coupl e of shovel sf ul of ear t h, r ocki ng t he cr adl e wi t h one hand

and pour i ng i n wat er wi t h t he ot her . Now, t he gol d mi ner

conduct s t he wat er f r om some hi gh poi nt t o a f avour abl e posi t i on

over hi s pl acer , gi v ng a l ar ge f al l , and f r om t hat posi t i on i n hose

t o t he washi ngs, wher e, r ushi ng wi t h i r r esi st i bl e power t hr ough a

smal l nozzl e, i t i s t ur ned agai nst t he sol i d hi l l s of di r t , gr avel ,

st one, and cement , whi ch i t cut s down, di ssol ves, and t hr ough

sl ui ces car r i es mi l es away t o a f avour abl e pl ace f or dumpi ng,

l eavi ng t he gol d deposi t ed i n t he sl ui ce. I n t hi s manner hi l l s 300

and 400 f eet hi gh, of t he har dness of st one, mel t and di sappear l i ke

a bank of snow bef or e t he summer ' s sun ; hal f - a- dozen men, by t hi s

l abour - savi ng pr ocess, doi ng t he wor k t hat woul d r equi r e an ar my

wi t h pi cks, shovel s, and cr adl es onl y.

Now, l et us see what have been t he gener al ef f ect s whi ch have

r esul t ed f r om t he use of l abour - savi ng machi ner y' . I wi l l br i ef l y

sum t hem up i n a f ew di st i nct concl usi ons.

I . I t has br oken up and dest r oyed our whol e syst em of agr i -

cul t ur e as pr act i sed bj ' our f at her s, whi ch r equi r ed t he whol e t i me

and at t ent i on of al l t he sons of t he f ar m and many f r om t he t owns,

i n t he nevej - endi ng dut i es of f ood pr oduct i on^ and has dr i ven t hem

74 ^^' ^ Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on.

t o t he t owns and ci t i es t o hunt f or empl oyment , or r emai n i n gr eat

par t i dl e.

2. I t has br oken up and dest r oyed our whol e syst em of house-

hol d and f ami l y manuf act ur es, as done by our mot her s, when al l

t ook par t i n t he l abour and shar ed i n t he pr oduct , t o t he comf or t of

al l ; and has compel l ed t he daught er s of our count r y and t owns t o

f act or y oper at i ons f or t en or t wel ve hour s a day i n t he manuf act ur e

of cl ot h t hey may not wear , t hough next t o nakedness i n t he

shi ver i ng bl ast ; or t o t he ci t y t o pl y t hei r needl es f or ei ght een or

t went y hour s a day, i n hunger and col d ; or t o t he st r eet i n t hou-

sands, spi nni ng yar ns and weavi ng webs t hat become t hei r shr ouds.

3. I t has br oken up and dest r oyed our whol e syst em of wor ki ng

i n wood and i r on and l eat her i n smal l shops of one, t wo, or i t may be

hal f - a- dozen wor kmen, i n ever y t own, vi l l age, or haml et i n t he

count r y, wi t h bl acksmi t h shops i n near nei ghbour hood upon ever y

r oad, wher e ever y man was a wor kman who coul d t ake t he r ough

i r on or unshaped wood and uncut l eat her and car r y i t t hr ough al l

i t s oper at i ons, unt i l a t hor oughl y f i ni shed ar t i cl e was pr oduced,

and has compel l ed al l t o pr oduct i on i n l ar ge shops, wher e

machi ner y has mi nut el y di vi ded al l wor k, r equi r i ng onl y knowl edge

and st r engt h enough t o at t end a machi ne t hat wi l l heel shoes, or cut

nai l s, or car d wool , or spi n yar n, or do some ot her smal l f r act i on of

a compl et e whol e.

Page 36 of 69

4. I t has br oken up and dest r oyed our whol e syst em of

i ndi vi dual and i ndependent act i on i n pr oduct i on and manuf act ur e,

wher e any man who possessed a t r ade by hi s own hands coul d at

once make t hat t r ade hi s suppor t and means of advancement ,

f r ee of cont r ol by any ot her man, and has compel l ed al l wor ki ng

men and women t o a syst em of communal wor k, wher e, i n hundr eds

and t housands, t hey ar e f or ced t o l abour wi t h no ot her i nt er est i n

t he wor k t han i s gr ant ed t o t hem i n t he wages pai d f or so much

t oi l ; wi t h no voi ce, no r i ght , no i nt er est i n t he pr oduct of t hei r

hands and br ai ns, but subj ect t o t he uncont r ol l ed i nt er est and

capr i ce of t hose who, t oo of t en, know no ot her mot i ve t han t hat of

avar i ce.

5. I t has so enor mousl y devel oped t he power of pr oduct i on as t o

f ar out st r i p man' s ut most power of consumpt i on, enabl i ng l ess t han

one- hal f of t he pr oduci ng and wor ki ng cl asses, wor ki ng t en hour s

a day, t o pr oduce vast l y mor e t han a mar ket can be f ound f or ;

f i l l i ng our gr anar i es, war ehouses, and depot s, and st or es, wi t h

enor mous amount s of pr oduct s of ever y descr i pt i on, f or whi ch t her e

i s no sal e, t hough never bef or e of f er ed at such l ow pr i ces, wi t h

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on. 75

mul t i t udes of men and women i n t he gr eat est want — bei ng wi t hout

f ood, cl ot hi ng, sh. ; l t er — wi t hout wor k, and consequent l y wi t hout

means t o obt ai n t he si mpl est necessar i es of l i f e.

6. I t has t hr own out of empl oyment subst ant i al l y one- hal f of

t he wor ki ng cl asses. I n f act , i t has ut t er l y dest r oyed al l r egul ar

or const ant empl oyment f or any consi der abl e cl ass i n any i ndust r y,

and i s const ant l y and st eadi l y di spl aci ng abl e and wi l l i ng men, and

f i l l i ng t hei r pl aces wi t h women and chi l dr en; l eavi ng no pl ace t o

be f i l l ed by, and no demand f or , t he const ant l y- i ncr easi ng number s

devel oped i n our i ncr ease of popul at i on, i n t hi s way addi ng t o t he

number of t he unempl oyed. I t t akes mar r i ed women i n t housands

f r om t hei r mat er nal car es and dut i es, and chi l dr en but l i t t l e mor e

t han i nf ant s f r om t he school s, put t i ng t hem t o t he car e of

machi ner y and i t s wor k, unt i l qui t e one- t hi r d of t he machi ne

t ender s i n our count r y ar e women and chi l dr en : t hus br eaki ng

down t he mot her s, sl aught er i ng t he i nf ant s, and gi vi ng

empl oyment t o any who obt ai n i t onl y upon such condi t i ons of

uncer t ai nt y, i nsecur i t y, compet i t i on wi t h t he wor kl ess, and

st eady r educt i on i n wages, as cr eat e a const ant st r uggl e t o obt ai n

t he l i t t l e wor k t hey do have, and get such compensat i on f or i t as

wi l l bar el y suppor t l i f e even when i n heal t h.

These poi nt s show cl ear l y t he changes whi ch have t aken pl ace

i n al l our i ndust r i es wi t hi n a per i od of l i t t l e mor e t han hal f a

cent ur y — changes gr eat er t hen t he wor l d has bef or e known dur i ng

i t s whol e exi st ence.

Sur el y such a pi ct ur e as t hi s, r el at i ng t o a count r y wher e

ci r cumst ances ar e at pr esent so f avour abl e f or secur i ng t he

wel f ar e of t he masses, as i s t he case i n t he Uni t ed St at es —

a count r y not l ong si nce r egar ded as t he par adi se of t he

wor ki ng man — shoul d l ead t o t he most ser i ous consi der a-

t i on whet her t he uni ver sal f r eedom t o st r uggl e can

pr oduce t he uni ver sal good of t en ascr i bed t o i t ; whet her

t hi s " l aw of nat ur e " can be t he t r ue l aw of l i f e f or

r easonabl e bei ngs, and i s not r at her a l aw t o be st udi ed

and made subser vi ent t o human pr ogr ess, but not one

whi ch can f or m t he sol i d basi s of a human soci et y.

I t i s my posi t i on t hat t hi s i s t he case — t hat human wor k

ought t o be car r i ed on upon a syst em not of st r uggl e but of

f el l owshi p, wher e t he r esul t s of t he common l abour ar e

76 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on.

di st r i but ed wi t h equi t y, and t he condi t i ons of l i f e gener al l y

Page 37 of 69

ar e wi sel y adapt ed t o f aci l i t at e t he use of t hese r esul t s i n

t he way whi ch wi l l enabl e t he mass of t he popul at i on t o

der i ve f r om t hem t he l ar gest at t ai nabl e measur e of

advant age.

I t i s my posi t i on t hat ar r angement s may be made by

whi ch such ef f ect s as t hose above i ndi cat ed can be pr o-

duced, wi t hout i n any way i nt er f er i ng wi t h t he l i ber t y of

anyone t o deal wi t h t hei r own pr oper t } ^ as t hey pl ease, so

t hat t hey obser ve t he gener al condi t i ons necessar y f or t he

common wel f ar e; wi t hout any at t empt t o ef f ect an

" equal di vi si on of unequal ear ni ngs" ; si mpl y by

st udyi ng t he nat ur al l aw of compet i t i on t o det er mi ne how

t o obt ai n f r om i t t he good whi ch i t may yi el d, wi t hout t he

evi l now accompanyi ng i t . Let us exami ne t hi s mat t er

cal ml y.

To what cause have we f ound t hat t he i nj ur i ous ef f ect s

t r aced out above ar e at t r i but abl e ? Mai nl y t o t hi s : t hat

t he pr ogr ess of i ndust r y, when we al l ow i t t o adj ust i t sel f

by t he nat ur al l aw of compet i t i on l ef t unr est r ai ned,

separ at es a per pet ual l y i ncr easi ng pr opor t i on of t he

popul at i on f r om t he nat ur al condi t i on of l i f e — t he di r ect

access t o t hat mi ni st er of t he Di vi ne bount y, our common

mot her Ear t h, t o obt ai n t hat gi f t of f ood whi ch she i s not

ni ggar dl y i n best owi ng when appl i ed t o i n a f i t t i ng

manner .

That t he appr opr i at i on of t he l and by i ndi vi dual

owner shi p wi l l cer t ai nl y l ead t o t hi s r esul t wher e t hat

appr opr i at i on i s l ef t at l i ber t y t o set t l e i t sel f , we see f r om

our own exper i ence. That t hi s ef f ect cannot be pr event ed,

even by an i nt er f er ence wi t h t he l i ght s of owner shi p

so consi der abl e as pr evai l s i n Fr ance, wher e t he l aw

appor t i ons t he l ands owned by anyone at hi s deat h among

hi s chi l dr en, we see by i t s ef f ect s t her e. For , t hough t hi s

l aw has been gener al i n Fr ance f or near l y a cent ur y, and

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on. yy

t he pr act i ce of sub- di vi si on i n many di st r i ct s was i n f ul l

f or ce i n t he si xt eent h cent ur y, and has been car r i ed t o an

ext ent ver y i nj ur i ous t o t he ef f ect i ve cul t i vat i on of t he

soi l , whi ch, wi t h a cl i mat e bet t er sui t ed t han t hat of

Engl and t o t he pr oduct i on of wheat , does not vi el d on an

aver age t wo- t hi r ds of t he amount of Engl i sh pr oduce;

st i l l , t he t ot al number of l andowner s di d not exceed one-

t ent h of t he whol e popul at i on ( 3, 800, 000) , accor di ng t o

t he r et ur n of 1866 when Al sace and Lor r ai ne wer e st i l l

i ncl uded i n Fr ance, of whom 3, 236, 000 wer e act ual l and

occupi er s; whi l e t he t endency of t he r ur al di st r i ct s t o

become l ess popul ous f r om mi gr at i on t o t he t owns, so

mar ked i n Engl and, and whi ch t he st at ement above

quot ed shows t o be r api dl y i ncr easi ng i n t he Uni t ed

St at es, i s begi nni ng t o show i t sel f i n Fr ance al so.

Now, i f t he case be as i s her e st at ed; i f t he t endency

of compet i t i ve i ndust r y i s t o separ at e men f r om t he

nat ur al sour ce of l i f e, and t he i nj ur i ous ef f ect upon t he

wor ker i s di r ect l y t r aceabl e t o t hi s separ at i on, can we

show t hat i n co- oper at i ve t r ade and i ndust r y t her e i s any

nat ur al t endency i n t he opposi t e di r ect i on ? any mode of

act i on whi ch, count er act i ng t hi s i nj ur i ous ef f ect of com-

pet i t i on, may, as i t becomes gener al , l eave us i n possessi on

of t he good ar i si ng f r om t hi s nat ur al f or ce wi t hout i t s

evi l ? I t hi nk t hat such a nat ur al t endency may be poi nt ed

out , and I wi l l endeavour t o bear out t hi s posi t i on by

shor t l y t r aci ng t he way i n whi ch co- oper at i on can deal

wi t h t he compet i t i on of exi st i ng soci et y, i n whi ch, cl ear l y,

i t has t o gr ow up i f i t ever t akes i t s pl ace as an i mpor t ant

i nf l uence i n human af f ai r s. Thi s met hod essent i al l y con-

si st s i n usi ng t he r esour ces put i nt o our hands by t he

pr esent syst em, i n or der gr adual l y t o r epl ace i t by anot her

Page 38 of 69

wher e t he st r uggl e of i nt er est s shal l gi ve pl ace t o t hei r

r easonabl e adj ust ment . To begi n wi t h t he t heor y of

co- oper at i ve di st r i but i on, what i s i t but a uni on of

78 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Cor n- pet i t i on.

consumer s, who say : why shoul d we r un about t o t hi s or

t hat man, who, f or hi s own advant age, under t akes t o

suppl y what we want , and i s under cont i nual t empt at i on

t o def r aud us, because hi s i nt er est s and our s ar e opposed ?

Whv not uni t e t o obt ai n what we want on t he best t er ms,

namel y, by payi ng r eady cash f or i t , t hr ough per sons

appoi nt ed by our sel ves, i n whom we begi n by havi ng

conf i dence, and al l of whose act s ar e open t o us ; wi t h

whom we make def i ni t e agr eement s f or payment f or t hei i

ser vi ces; and whom, i f t her e i s ever occasi on f or cal l i ng

t hei r conduct i n quest i on, we can r emove ?

Pl ai nl y, her e i s a st ep, and a ver y i mpor t ant st ep, made

t owar ds t he subst i t ut i on of r easonabl e accor d i nst ead of

compet i t i ve st r uggl e i n a cl ass of t r ansact i ons of dai l y

occur r ence, yet a st ep such t hat i t s success i s ent i r el y

wi t hi n t he power of any moder at el y numer ous number

of per sons, who have t he good sense t o t ake i t , and t he

pat i ence t o per sever e i n what t hey have under t aken.

Thi s i s t he f i r st st ep t o get - f r ee f r om t he meshes of com-

pet i t i on. I t i s a st ep i n no degr ee i nvol vi ng any l oss of

t he advant ages whi ch compet i t i on may have br ought

wi t hi n our r each i n obt ai ni ng t he ar t i cl es t o be di st r i but ed,

or t he negl ect of any means of economi si ng l abour , or

i ncr easi ng conveni ence or ef f i ci ency i n t he pr ocess,

i nt r oduced by i t . I t i s si mpl y sayi ng: t hi s act of our

dai l y l i ves shal l be per f or med so as t o br i ng wi t h i t t he

l east of cost and t he most of conf i dence at t ai nabl e ; and,

as a most val uabl e means t o t hi s end, under t he condi t i on

of cash payment s, wi t h no capi t al needl essl y l yi ng out

unpr oduct i vel y ; no bad debt s swel l i ng t he cost t o t hose

who pay by t he l oss f r om t hose who do not .

Now, on t hi s sohd f oundat i on, when i t has at t ai ned a

br eadt h pr opor t i oned t o i t s sol i di t y by t he mul t i pl i cat i on

of separ at e cent r es of suppl y, i t becomes possi bl e t o bui l d

wi t h equal sol i di t y, and wi t hout any depar t ur e f r om t he

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on. 79

accust omed met hods of busi ness t he f ur t her st ep of a

cent r al associ at i on, whi ch may be t o - t he separ at e st or es

what t hey have been t o t hese i ndi vi dual member s — t he

means of concent r at i ng t hei r pur chases, and t hus enabl i ng

t hem t o be made on t he best t er ms, f r om t hei r magni t ude,

and by t he best j udges, f r om t he gr eat er power of secur i ng

t he ser vi ces of t he per sons best qual i f i ed t o j udge, whi ch

one whol esal e est abl i shment must possess over a number

of r et ai l est abl i shment s. Whi l e associ at i ons of t hi s ki nd

may, by a f ur t her appl i cat i on of t he same pr i nci pl e of

uni on, be f eder at ed among t hemsel ves f or any pur poses

goi ng beyond t he separ at e r esour ces of any one of t hem,

such as t he i mpor t i ng any of t he ar t i cl es t hey r equi r e i n

shi ps of t hei r own; and t hus, wi t hout depar t i ng f r om t he

usual habi t s of compet i t i ve busi ness, may appl y f or t he

advant age of t he co- oper at i ve uni on what ever ar r ange-

ment s compet i t i ve t r ade has br ought men t o use i n t hese

busi nesses f or t hei r pr i vat e advant age.

Wi t h t hi s uni on f or t he means of t r ansi t , whi ch may

appl y t o l and as wel l as wat er , we come pr et t y wel l t o t he

end of what co- oper at i on has t o do i n t he pr ovi nce of

di st r i but i on. But men cannot gener al l y l i ve on di s-

t r i but i ng. Di st r i but i on r est s on t he pr evi ous pr ocess of

pr oduci ng what can be di st r i but ed. I pr oceed t o show

Page 39 of 69

how co- oper at i ve uni on can hel p us t o escape f r om t he

compet i t i ve st r uggl e, i n t hi s pr i mar y spher e of pr oduct i on,

wi t h t he l i ke pr ospect s of gener al advant age whi ch

accompany i t s oper at i ons i n t he secondar y' spher e of

di st r i but i on. I t act s by a cour se of oper at i ons of whi ch

t he whol esal e cent r e of suppl y f or ms t he nat ur al pi vot ,

and t he r ul e t o be adopt ed i n f i xi ng or set t l i ng t he pr i ce

of t he ar t i cl es di st r i but ed, an i nst i t ut i on not yet not i ced,

f ur ni shes t he nat ur al l ever .

To commence pr oduct i on successf ul l y at t he pr esent

day, t he pr oducer needs an assur ed mar ket . To car r y on

8o The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on.

pr oduct i on at al l he needs capi t al . And f or t he wor ker s

t o car r y i t on so as t o der i ve f r om i t al l t he advant ages

t hat t hei r wor k can gi ve t hem, t hey r equi r e t o get t hi s

capi t al on easy t er ms, i . e. , at moder at e r at es of i nt er est .

Now, t o get capi t al at moder at e r at es of i nt er est , i t i s

i ndi spensabl e t o gi ve i t s owner s secur i t y t hat t he payment s

shal l cont i nue. Pr oduce t hi s convi ct i on, and exper i ence

pr oves concl usi vel y t hat i n a count r y such as Gr eat Br i t ai n

t he r at e at whi ch capi t al can be obt ai ned i s so moder at e

t hat i t ceases t o f or m any bur den upon i ndust r y. Now,

a body of di st r i but i ve soci et i es, uni t ed by such a cent r al

associ at i on as above descr i bed, have i n t hi s cent r e t he

nat ur al means of ascer t ai ni ng what i s t hei r t ot al demand

f or any manuf act ur ed ar t i cl es whi ch t hey can pr oduce

and consume; and when t hat consumpt i on r i ses t o a

hei ght t o suppor t a manuf act or y of t hese ar t i cl es, t hey

have i n t hem t he means of pr ovi di ng t he f i r st condi t i on

of success, a mar ket f or t hei r pr oduce, wher e t hey may

ant i ci pat e at l east a f ai r t r i al .

But f ur t her , t hi s machi ner y of di st r i but i on may suppl y

t hem wi t h t he means of obt ai ni ng t he capi t al r equi r ed

at t he l owest cost al l owed by t he ci r cumst ances, by

means of t he savi ngs on t hei r own consumpt i on. I f

t hey pr ovi de t hat t he ar t i cl es obt ai ned by t hem t hr ough

t hei r uni ons f or di st r i but i on shal l be sol d at or di nar y

pr i ces, and r et ur n t o t hei r member s t he sur pl us, af t er

pr ovi di ng f or t he t ot al cost i ncl udi ng t he i nt er est on t he

capi t al empl oyed i n t hi s oper at i on, as di vi dends on t hei r

pur chases i nst ead of by an i mmedi at e r educt i on of pr i ces,

t hey wi l l gai n t wo gr eat advant ages —

I . They can ensur e t he di vi si on of t hese savi ngs down

t o t he l ast f ar t hi ng, wi t hout l eavi ng, i n t he char ge made

t o pr ovi de f or expense, a mar gi n whi ch shal l be a t empt a-

t i on t o any body of shar ehol der s t o appr opr i at e i t t o

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on. 8i

t hemsel ves, and t hus pr act i cal l y obt ai n a benef i t at t he

cost of t hei r nei ghbour s.

2. They wi l l cr eat e, i n t he per manent i ncomes r est i ng

on t hei r own consumpt i on, a f und whi ch, used by a uni on

of t hese soci et i es as a guar ant ee f or t he i nt er est of t he

capi t al t hey may desi r e t o appr opr i at e t o any pr oduct i ve

wor ks, woul d pr ovi de a secur i t y suf f i ci ent t o enabl e t hem

t o obt ai n t hi s capi t al on t he best t er ms t hat t he st at e of

t he money mar ket i n t he count r y wher e t he} ' wer e f or med

woul d al l ow. Whi l e t he pr oduce of t hese wor ks woul d

suppl y t hem wi t h t he r esour ces f or payi ng t he char ge,

and r el i eve t he guar ant eei ng i ncome f r om any r eal

bur den.

Her e, t hen, wi t hout depar t i ng at al l f r om t he soci al

condi t i ons cr eat ed by t he pr esent wor l d of compet i t i on,

Page 40 of 69

adher i ng t o t he pr i ces f i xed, and t he modes of conduct i ng

exchanges est abl i shed by i t , we see t he way openi ng t o

t he qui et , gr adual i nt r oduct i on of t hat wor l d of co-

oper at i ve uni on, wher e t he mass of t he popul at i on shal l

no l onger be shut out f r om t he nat ur al sour ce of sub-

si st ence, and al l t he advant ages of weal t h and t he ci vi l i si ng

i nf l uences of hi gh cul t i vat i on may be br ought wi t hi n t he

r each of al l men. For t he co- oper at or s, havi ng by uni on

at t ai ned a mar ket i n t hei r own r equi r ement s f or what

t hey desi r e t o pr oduce, and t he f aci l i t y f or get t i ng

capi t al on t he easi est t er ms on t he secur i t y of t hei r own

consumpt i on, woul d obvi ousl y have i n t hei r own hands

t he power of r egul at i ng t he mode i n whi ch wor k shoul d

be conduct ed, and i t s pr of i t s deal t wi t h. Whi l e secur i ng

t hat t hi s wor k was honest l y done; t hat t hey got f ul l

val ue f or what t hey pai d, and escaped ent i r el y f r om t he

domi ni on of adul t er at i on and shams, and pr ovi di ng f or t he

gr eat est economy i n pr oduct i on by ar r est i ng t he f or ma-

t i on of unnecessar y cent r es of suppl y, t hey mi ght do f or

t he wor ker what M. Godi n has done at Gui se — dest r oy

82 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on.

t he ant agoni sm bet ween l abour and capi t al , and gr adual l y

f i l l up t he gul f bet ween r i ch and poor by t he i nsensi bl e

ef f ect of i nst i t ut i ons wher e t he weal t h cr eat ed by wor k

may do f or t he wor ker al l t hat , by t he wi se use of i t , can

be done.

Thi s mi ght be ef f ect ed even i f t he l aws of Engl and wer e

f ar l ess f avour abl e t o associ at ed ent er pr i se t han t hey

act ual l y ar e under t he pr esent l aw, whi ch cl ot hes soci et i es

of wor ki ng men wi t h al l t he r i ght s of bodi es cor por at e,

t oget her wi t h t he r i ght of hol di ng l and i n any quant i t y.

I t i s cl ear t hat soci et i es f or med f or pr oduct i ve pur poses

under t he condi t i ons above supposed mi ght , as t hey

mul t i pl i ed and became weal t hy, and spr ead over t he

count r y, combi ne wi t h t hei r manuf act ur e t hose pur sui t s

of hor t i cul t ur e and agr i cul t ur e, on whose advant ages

t he l at e Mr . Gl adst one once dwel t wi t h hi s usual

el oquence ; and open t he way, by t he pl easant condi t i ons

of r esi dence under whi ch t hei r wor k was car r i ed on, f or

t hat soci al uni on wi t h t he cl asses now separ at ed f r om

t hem, whi ch t he pr ogr ess of compet i t i ve i ndust r y, wi t h

i t s t endency t o cr owd t he masses of t he popul at i on i nt o

ci t i es, makes per pet ual l y mor e r emot e, by dest r oyi ng al l

t he nat ur al f r i endl y t i es of r esi dence i n t he same l ocal i t y.

Thi s mi ght be done, t oo, under our exi st i ng l aws r el at i ng

t o l and wi t hout any change; r equi r i ng not hi ng mor e

t han pr epar edness t o buy t he l and per pet ual l y of f er ed

f or sal e. And i t mi ght be done wi t h f ar gr eat er f aci l i t y

i n a count r y wher e l and i s habi t ual l y hel d and di sposed

of i n l ar ge quant i t i es t han woul d be t he case i n a count r y

l i ke Fr ance, wher e, t o acqui r e an est at e of a f ew hundr ed

acr es, mi ght need a l ong pr ocess of pur chases and

exchanges of l and bought i n f r agment s. We appr oach

i n t hi s pi ct ur e a st at e of t hi ngs so f ar r emoved f r om what

now pr evai l s i n a soci et } ^ of r ur al di st r i ct s whi ch t he

pr ogr ess of i nvent i on i s per pet ual l y depr i vi ng of t hei r

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on. 83

popul at i on, and ci t i es over f l owi ng wi t h a popul at i on

whi ch t he same pr ogr ess i s cont i nual l y depr i vi ng of t he

means of subsi st ence, t hat t hose t o whom i t i s pr esent ed

as an accompl i shed f act , r at her t han as a pr ocess gr adual l y

accomphshi ng i t sel f by nat ur al t endenci es, may be apt

t o gr eet i t wi t h t hat cr y of " Ut opi a " wi t h whi ch sel f i sh

i ndi f f er ence i s al ways r eady t o t hr ow col d wat er on l ar ge

pr oposal s of soci al i mpr ovement ; i f not by t hat f avour i t e

st al ki ng- hor se of pessi mi sm, t he mor e r api d i ncr ease of

Page 41 of 69

men t han of f ood — of whi ch I wi l l say onl y t hat a r ace

among whom cul t i vat i on and t he means of wel l - bei ng

wer e gener al l y di f f used woul d be abl e t o deal wi t h i t i n a

sat i sf act or y manner f ar bet t er t han our pr esent popul a-

t i on.

But on what , af t er al l , does t he oper at i on I have her e

endeavour ed t o depi ct r est , but on t he assumpt i on t hat

bodi es of men, col l ect i vel y act i ng f or t hei r mut ual advan-

t age, woul d do f or t hei r j oi nt benef i t what we f i nd t hat

i ndi vi dual l y men ar e di sposed t o do f or t hei r pr i vat e

benef i t , when compet i t i ve i ndust r y pl aces t he means of

so doi ng i n t hei r hands. Have we not seen gener at i on

af t er gener at i on of manuf act ur er s, when by t hei r success-

f ul i ndust r y t hey have r ol l ed up f r om t he pr of i t s of t hei r

busi ness accumul at ed st or es of capi t al , i nvest i ng t hem

i n t he pur chase of l and, and er ect i ng t her eon f or t hem-

sel ves and t hei r f ami l i es st at el y dwel l i ngs, wher e weal t h

was made t o mi ni st er i n a t housand ways t o t he means of

enj oyment ? I f , t hen, t he mass of t he wor ki ng popu-

l at i on — t hose t hr ough whose t oi l t hi s accumul at i on of

weal t h has been made possi bl e — f i nd t he way by asso-

ci at i on among t hemsel ves t o make t he sour ce of r i ches

f l ow over f or t hei r j oi nt benef i t , why shoul d i t seem

st r ange t o suppose t hat t hey t oo may seek col l ect i vel y

t o i nvest t hei r accumul at ed savi ngs i n t he l and, whi ch

t o t hem mi ght be not mer e acr es cul t i vat ed by ot her s

84 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on.

who had t o sel l t he cr ops t o pay t hei r r ent , but t he si t e

of homes wher e t hese wor ker s t hemsel ves dwel t — homes

wher e t he pl easur es of t he soci al i nt er cour se now af f or ded

onl y i n t owns coul d be combi ned wi t h t he pl easur es of

t hat r ur al l i f e f r om whi ch t he t owns of our i ndust r i al

Engl and ever mor e and mor e shut out t hei r i nhabi t ant s ?

Even at t he pr esent day Lancashi r e and Yor kshi r e ar e

f ul l of mi l l s and f act or i es, whi ch by t hei r si t uat i on woul d

of f er al l t he f aci l i t i es f or such a combi nat i on of r ur al and

ur ban exi st ence, i f t he pr of i t s der i ved f r om t hei r wor k

wer e concent r at ed and appl i ed i n t he way now i ndi cat ed,

t o pr omot e t he wel l - bei ng of t he wor ker s. The spr ead

of r ai l and t r am ways makes t he r ai si ng of such cent r es

of i ndust r y mor e easy ever y day. Sur el y, t hen, i t i s a

r easonabl e hope t hat , as t he wor ker s obt ai n t hr ough

associ at i on i ncr eased means of pr oduci ng such r esul t s,

t her e woul d be a cor r espondi ng i ncr ease i n t he r esul t s

pr oduced ; so t hat t he pr ogr ess of i nvent i on and accumu-

l at i on of weal t h woul d t end t o r edi st r i but e over t he

count r y t he popul at i on whi ch t hi s same pr ogr ess now

bani shes f r om i t ; not as t he semi - pauper i sed t i l l er s of

cot t i er l ot s, whi ch t hey wer e t oo scat t er ed and t oo poor

t o cul t i vat e pr oper l y, but as t he weal t hy and i nt el l i gent

i nhabi t ant s of uni t ar y dwel l i ngs, wher e al l t he r esour ces

of agr i cul t ur al and hor t i cul t ur al sci ence woul d be appl i ed

t o make t he pr oduce of t he ear t h keep pace wi t h t he

pr oduce of t he i ndust r i es by whi ch i t s owner s wer e

enr i ched.

That ci t i es woul d di sappear I do not suppose. Em-

por i ums of commer ce, cent r es of educat i on, cent r es

of ar t woul d, no doubt , exi st wher e ci r cumst ances

f avour ed t hei r exi st ence ; but t hey woul d be t r ansf or med ;

r esembl i ng Dr . Ri char dson' s Ci t y of Heal t h r at her

t han our pr esent deser t s of br i ck and mor t ar . A

t hi ckl y peopl ed count r y woul d be somet hi ng l i ke what

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Compet i t i on. 85

may be seen now al ong t he shor es of t he l ake of Zur i ch,

onl y i n gr eat er per f ect i on : a successi on of pal aces, each

Page 42 of 69

wi t h i t s f ar ms, gar dens, and or char ds, i nt er sper sed wi t h

cent r es of wor k, al l smokel ess ; and wi t h now and t hen

mor e t hi ckl y aggr egat ed masses of a popul at i on who,

unl i ke t he r esi dent s of our pr esent t owns, woul d never be

so cl osel y cr owded t oget her as t o l ose t he pl easur e of l i f e

i n t hei r sear ch af t er t he means of l i vi ng. Thi s woul d

be t he out come of a co- oper at i ve wor l d sucl i as I concei ve

i t .

I st op her e, not because t he subj ect - mat t er does not

i nvi t e me t o go on, but because any at t empt t o t r ace

out t he r el at i ons subsi st i ng bet ween t he di f f er ent pr o-

duct i ve bodi es whi ch mi ght be f or med by such means

as I have at t empt ed t o t r ace, car r i es us i nt o a st at e

of t hi ngs so f ar r emoved f r om t he pr esent st at e t hat

t he descr i pt i on may be char ged wi t h bei ng as i mpossi bl e

as i t must be i magi nar y. But t hat i t must be i magi nar y

does not pr ove i t t o be i mpossi bl e.

I have desi r ed t o poi nt out what , i n t he pr esent

compet i t i ve wor l d, coul d be ef f ect ed wi t hout any depar -

t ur e f r om t he usual condi t i ons of busi ness, si mpl y by

usi ng t he r esul t s of t hi s busi ness f or t he gener al good,

i nst ead of l et t i ng t hem be appr opr i at ed t o i ndi vi dual

advant age. I have endeavour ed t o show t hat co-

oper at i on, i n t he t wo pr i nci pl es t r aced out , bot h con-

si st ent wi t h t he or di nar y cour se of compet i t i ve i ndust r y'

— t he uni on of consumer s t o secur e t he gr eat est at t ai nabl e

economy i n di st r i but i on, and t he uni on of pr oducer s

t o make t he wor k by whi ch t hey l i ve as r i ch i n benef i t s

t o t hem as i t i s capabl e of bei ng — possesses t he means

of sol vi ng t hat soci al quest i on whi ch now " per pl exes

nat i ons wi t h t he f ear of change, " and i s gr owi ng wi t h

ever y r et ur ni ng year t o mor e al ar mi ng pr opor t i ons;

t he upshot of t he whol e pr ocess bei ng t hat i t woul d

86 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on i o- Compet i t i on.

gr adual l y br i ng men, i n t he f ul ness of knowl edge and

t he i ndef i ni t e i ncr ease of weal t h, back t o t hat nat ur al

const i t ut i on of t hi ngs wher e compet i t i on, bei ng di r ect ed

not t o secur e subsi st ence but t o mul t i pl y t he means of

enj oyment , woul d be seen t o have a f i t t i ng pl ace i n t he

" best possi bl e wor l d " of Di vi ne or der .

Not e on Nat ur al Law. — The posi t i on t aken up i n t hi s chapt er i n r egar d t o t he

" Law of Compet i t i on, " i n t r ut h, assumes onl y t hat t he same pr i nci pl es whi ch appl y

t o al l ot her so- cal l ed Laws of Nat ur e appl y t o i t . Al l such l aws have a nat ur al

spher e of act i on, i n whi ch t hey ar e benef i ci al t o man; and i f he passes beyond t hi s

spher e, wi l l pr oduce r esul t s wor ki ng t o hi m i nj ur y, t o be avoi ded onl y by car ef ul l y

st udyi ng t hei r act i on, i n or der t o pr eser ve what i s benef i ci al , and aver t what i s i nj ur i ous.

For i nst ance, our power s of mot i on and exer t i on depend upon t he f act t hat t he ear t h

pul l s us t o i t sel f , i n vi r t ue of t he so- cal l ed Law of Gr avi t at i on. But i f we t r y t o l eave

t he nat ur al spher e of act i vi t y al l ot t ed t o us — t he dr y l and — and woul d swi m l i ke f i sh

or f l y l i ke bi r ds; or i f , upon t he l and, we seek t o move l ar ge masses i nst ead of cont ent i ng

our sel ves wi t h movi ng our own bodi es, t he f or ce of gr avi t y wi l l dr own or cr ush us, unl ess

by const r uct i ng boat s, or bal l oons, or cr anes, we make i t ser ve our pur poses. But what

ever yone admi t s t o be r easonabl e i n t he case of ot her " Nat ur al Laws, " i s di sr egar ded

i n r espect of t he " Law of Compet i t i on, " whi ch i s of t en pr esent ed as i f i t wer e a Di vi ne

t eacher , wi t h a speci al mi ssi on t o const r uct human soci et y upon a sol i d basi s; a t eacher

i mder whose gui dance we ought t o pl ace our sel ves, i n humbl e conf i dence t hat he cannot

l ead us ast r ay. I t i s my posi t i on t hat t hi s i s a t ot al er r or , and t hat compet i t i on i s

si mpl y a nat ur al f or ce whi ch can no mor e be t r ust ed t o const r uct a t r ue human soci et y

t han gr avi t y can be t r ust ed t o const r uct a br i dge.

Chapt er V.

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Cur r ent

Economi c Theor i es.

Page 43 of 69

TO i nvest i gat e t he di f f er ent economi c t heor i es

cur r ent at t he pr esent cl ay i n det ai l , i n or der

t o see how f ar t hey agr ee or di sagr ee wi t h t he

pr i nci pl es of co- oper at i ve act i on, woul d r equi r e a vol ume.

I do not pr opose t o engage i n any such t ask. But as

what i s cal l ed t he sci ence of Pol i t i cal Economy i s of t en,

appeal ed t o — usual l y wi t h a gr eat deal of i gnor ance

of what i t s t eacher s do say, but not , t her ef or e, wi t h

t he l ess conf i dence — as i f i t put an ext i ngui sher on al l

schemes of co- oper at i ve act i on, l abel l i ng t hem one and

al l as " i mpr act i cabl e, " i t may be wel l t o consi der

gener al l } - what i s t he r el at i on of co- oper at i on t o t hese

doct r i nes. We shal l see t hat , pr oper l y speaki ng, t her e

can be no ant agoni sm bet ween co- oper at i on and t he

doct r i nes of pol i t i cal economy, because t hey deal wi t h

di st i nct subj ect - mat t er s.

Let us bear i n mi nd what has been mor e t han once

st at ed, t hat co- oper at i on i s not a t heor y but a pr act i ce.

Co- oper at i on, as i t i s pr esent ed i n t hese pages, i s an

at t empt made by men pr of oundl y convi nced of t he

et er nal r eal i t y of mor al t r ut h, t o embody t he hi gh i deal

of dut y i n i nst i t ut i ons appl yi ng t o t he dai l y event s of

our or di nar y l i ves, i n or der t hat t hus, goodness may

become mor e pr eval ent t han i t i s among men because

i t s pr act i ce wi l l be mor e easy, and sel f i shness di mi ni sh

because t her e wi l l be l ess t empt at i on t o i t . But t he

doct r i nes of Pol i t i cal Economv, at l east of t he school

88 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o

best known i n Engl and, r el at e not t o t he mode i n

whi ch men ought t o act t owar ds each ot her , but t o t he

way i n whi ch t he} - do commonl y act i n acqui r i ng weal t h,

and t o t he r esul t s whi ch ar e f ound t o f ol l ow - f r om t hei r

t hus act i ng.

Now, i n so f ar as what man may t hus do agr ees wi t h

what ought t o be done, i t i s obvi ous t hat t he co- oper at or

cannot , as such, have an} - quar r el wi t h t he pol i t i cal

economi st , whose t eachi ngs, l i ke t hose of any ot her

sci ent i f i c t eacher who deal s wi t h ascer t ai ned f act s and

l ogi cal deduct i ons f r om t hem, cont i nual l y of f er t o hi m

much usef ul i nf or mat i on.

On t he ot her hand, i n so f ar as men' s pr esent conduct

i s not what i t ought t o be, doct r i nes concer ni ng t hei r

conduct must of necessi t } - cease t o appl y t o per sons

whose conduct has changed, and t her ef or e can af f ect

co- oper at i on onl y as demonst r at i ons of t he evi l con-

sequences of dr unkenness ma} ' af f ect a man of sober

habi t s — namel y, as a caut i on i nt o what an abyss of

degr adat i on and wr et chedness he woul d f al l i f he wer e

ever bet r ayed i nt o such habi t s.

I t may be al l eged : what you now say i n t r ut h admi t s

t he gr eat char ge of t he pol i t i cal economi st s agai nst

co- oper at i on — t hat i t i s i mpr act i cabl e; a mode of act i ng

i n whi ch men wi l l not act i n mnuber s suf f i ci ent t o make

i t wor t h anyone' s whi l e t o spend hi s l abour i n t r yi ng

t o get t hem so t o act . But f r om t he poi nt of vi ew

t aken i n t hese pages of man and hi s hi st or y — f r om t he

concept i on of i t as a mor al pr ogr ess, i n whi ch t he i dea

of human br ot her hood gr adual l y becomes evol ved as an

act i ve power , by t he mor e compl et e t r ansf or mat i on

of t he i ndi vi dual man i nt o t he l i keness of t hat Di vi ne

i deal i n whose mani f est at i on t he change began, or

f r om any ot her concept i on of human hi st or y whi ch

sees i n i t a st or y of mor al pr ogr ess, t he answer i s cl ear .

Page 44 of 69

Cur r ent Economi c Theor i es. 89

I t i s — we do bel i eve, t hat men' s conduct wi l l gener al l y

come t o be such as i t * ought t o be f ar mor e gener al l y

t han i t i s now; and we bel i eve t hat men wi l l be br ought

t hus t o act by means of such i nst i t ut i ons as we ar e

endeavour i ng t o set up. They wi l l r equi r e t o be f or med

by men pr of oundl y i mpr essed by t he pr i nci pl e of human

br ot her hood, f ul l of f ai t h i n i t s r eal i t y and ent husi asm

over t he spl endi d out l ook f or t he f ut ur e of manki nd

of f er ed by i t . But i n and by t hem wi l l be gr adual l y

pr oduced among ot her men, not necessar i l y a spi r i t

such as ani mat ed t hese f ounder s, but at l east a di s-

posi t i on t o act i n t he way r ecommended, t hough, per haps,

wi t h a vi ew t o per sonal advant age.

For t hi s must not be f or got t en — any i nst i t ut i on

del i ber at el y pl anned wi t h t he obj ect of pr omot i ng t he

wel f ar e of al l whom i t may sensi bl y af f ect , must , unl ess

i t i s ver y badl y adapt ed f or t he pur pose i nt ended by i t ,

be advant ageous t o t he gr eat maj or i t y of men. Onl y

t hat smal l but st r ong mi nor i t y whose t al ent enabl es t hem

t o " get on, " as i t i s cal l ed, meani ng, t o get up on ot her

men' s backs and so be r ai sed above t he cr ush, t o come t o

t he f r ont and r ol l up weal t h and t he power gi ven by

weal t h, may f eel t hemsel ves pl aced r el at i vel y at a

di sadvant age, by havi ng t o wor k f or t he common good,

and t o be cont ent ed wi t h t he common advant ages pl aced

wi t hi n t he r each of al l wi t h such speci al shar e of t he t ot al

pr oduce as i n t he gener al opi ni on t hei r wor k deser ves,

i nst ead of keepi ng al l t hat t hey coul d get " of f t hei r own

bat . " Now, no doubt , t hi s power f ul mi nor i t y i s t he

gr eat est di f f i cul t y i n t he way of co- oper at i on. Deal i ng

as i t does wi t h mat t er s of busi ness, and r equi r i ng, t her e-

f or e, when i t advances beyond t he compar at i vel y si mpl e

phase of di st r i but i on, t hat uni on of qual i t i es whi ch go t o

make successf ul t r ader s or manuf act ur er s, i t has t o i nduce

such men t o devot e t hemsel ves t o i t s ser vi ce, wi t h not hi ng

go The Rel at i on of Co- oper ai i on t o

t o of f er t hem but t he consci ousness t hat i f t hey gi ve up

much of what t hey mi ght have acqui r ed, t hey l i ave gai ned

what i s mor e wor t l i gai ni ng — t he convi ct i on of havi ng

f ai t hf ul l y used t hei r power s t o pr omot e t he wel l - bei ng of

manki nd.

The hope of t he success of co- oper at i on depends upon

t he assumpt i on t hat men may be f ound possessi ng t he

r equi r ed capaci t y, t o whom such consi der at i ons as t hose

above al l uded t o ar e supr eme ; who, wi t hout demandi ng,

what i t woul d be sui ci dal i n co- oper at or s t o of f er , a

per sonal r emuner at i on r i val l i ng t hat of f er ed by t he

compet i t i ve wor l d t o t hose who succeed i n ser vi ng t hem-

sel ves, wi l l gi ve t o t he ser vi ce of Humani t y by co- oper at i on

wor k as per sever i ng, and f ar mor e f ai t hf ul t han t he

compet i t i ve wor l d i s abl e t o pur chase, f r om men whose

ser vi ces ar e det er mi ned onl y by t he cal cul at i on of

compar at i ve i ndi vi dual advant ages. I s t hi s hope

unr easonabl e ? I concei ve t hat i t i s not .

The r eal ant agoni sm bet ween co- oper at i on and t he

pol i t i cal economi st s of t he school r ef er r ed t o l i es not i n

t he sci ence of Pol i t i cal Economy, t hat i s, t he pr i nci pl es

by whi ch l abour has t o be car r i ed on i n or der t o acqui r e

weal t h, but i n t he assumpt i on cont i nual l y made by t hi s

cl ass of wr i t er s t hat men ar e bei ngs whose conduct i n

commer ci al mat t er s wi l l al ways be r egul at ed sol el y or

mai nl y wi t h a vi ew t o t hei r i ndi vi dual sel f i sh i nt er est ;

whi l e t he co- oper at or , t hough he admi t s t hat t hi s t endency

i s l ament abl y pr eval ent at t he pr esent t i me, l ooks upon

i t as a " f al se ski n, " devel oped t o an unnat ur al vi gour by

t he ef f or t t o cast of f a medi aeval wor n- out ski n, t hat had

Page 45 of 69

become t oo t i ght f or t he gr owi ng ener gy of t he body

soci al , but dest i ned i t sel f ul t i mat el y t o sl ough of f , and

gi ve pl ace t o t he per manent human ski n, at once f i r m

and el ast i c, whi ch wi l l gi ve f r ee pl ay t o t he act i vi t y of

each i ndi vi dual member , whi l e i t hol ds al l f i r ml y

Cur r ent Economi c Theor i es. 91

co- or di nat ed i n t he uni t y of t he soci al body. Let us

exami ne whet her t hi s assumpt i on of t he co- oper at or i s

j ust i f i ed by ascer t ai nabl e f act s.

I t needs, I t hi nk, onl y t hat we r ub t he dust f r om our

eyes and l ook ar ound us i n t he wor l d as i t i s, t o see t hat

assi duous, unwear i ed, concent r at ed, endur i ng l abour may

be obt ai ned f r om men i n pur sui t s whi ch i nt er est t hei r

hi gher nat ur e, by consi der at i ons i n whi ch t he i dea of

wor ki ng f or i mmedi at e sel f - i nt er est becomes ent i r el y

subor di nat ed t o ot her mot i ves. The pur sui t of knowl edge

of al most any ki nd, t he pur sui t of ar t , t he desi r e t o

pr omot e t he wel f ar e of ot her men, whet her i n an assumed

f ut ur e exi st ence as among t he maj or i t y of r el i gi ous

t eacher s, or si mpl y f r om t he wi sh t o al l evi at e human

suf f er i ng as among ver y many member s of t he medi cal

pr of essi on, ar e i nst ances of t hi s sor t .

The ser vi ce of t he St at e i n al l i t s br anches — mi l i t ar y,

naval , and ci vi l — - f ur ni shes a si mi l ar and, i n some r espect s,

mor e i nst r uct i ve l esson ; because i f we do not usual l y f i nd

her e t he ent husi ast i c devot i on of t en di spl ayed by t he

sci ent i f i c i nqui r er , t he ar t i st , t he pr i est , and t he doct or ,

we keep wi t hi n t he br oad r ecogni sed l i nes of or di nar y

human act i on, so t hat what i t i s possi bl e t hus t o cal l

f or t h cannot be consi der ed a f l i ght beyond t he common

r each of manki nd. Now, i f we l ook at t hi s ser vi ce of t he

St at e, ei t her i n our own or ot her l aw- abi di ng count r i es,

such as Fr ance or Ger many, we may sat i sf y our sel ves

t hat , i n or der t o obt ai n t he best wor k of men of hi gh

abi l i t y, ver y moder at e payment s suf f i ce, i f t hey ar e

combi ned wi t h t wo condi t i ons — ( i ) t he cer t ai nt y of t hei r

cont i nuance except t hr ough f or f ei t ur e f r om mi sconduct ;

( 2) t he pr ospect of an advance t o hi gher posi t i ons,

r egul at ed by mer i t and not by capr i ci ous f avour .

But t hese t wo condi t i ons a co- oper at i ve uni on woul d

be pecul i ar l y abl e t o assur e, f r om t he ver y f act of i t s

92 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o

bei ng essent i al ! } ^ a syst em i n whi ch uni t ed act i on woul d

gr adual l y super sede i ndi vi dual st r uggl es. I n such a

S3' st em t he uncer t ai n chances of compet i t i ve r i val r y woul d

nat ur al l y di sappear bef or e t he est abl i shment of cent r es

of pr oduct i on and suppl y, car ef ul l y ar r anged wi t h

r ef er ence t o t he want s of t he popul at i on, and embr aci ng

di st r i ct s f eder at ed t oget her , so t hat each cent r e, whi l e

f r ee t o act wi t hi n i t s r ecogni sed l i mi t , woul d have t he

spher e t hus def i ned undi st ur bed. Such a syst em woul d

nat ur al l y l ead t o t he per manence of empl oyment s and t o

a hi er ar chy of of f i ces. I n t r ut h i t woul d t r ansf or m t he

whol e machi ner y of pr oduct i on and di st r i but i on i nt o

publ i c f unct i ons, and t hus br i ng i nt o gener al oper at i on

t hose mot i ves whi ch ar e f ound, i n t he wor l d as i t i s, t o

be r el i abl e means of combi ni ng ef f i ci ency i n t he wor k

done wi t h economy i n t he payment s made f or i t .

How l ar ge a f und co- oper at i ve or gani sat i on woul d have

at i t s command f or r easonabl y r ewar di ng i t s most ef f i ci ent

wor ker s, whi l e yet i t gave a l ar gel y i ncr eased i ndi vi dual

advant age t o t he mass of t he popul at i on, t he act ual

r esul t s obt ai ned by co- oper at i ve soci et i es i n t hei r savi ngs

Page 46 of 69

upon t he enor mous cost of t he pr esent syst em of com-

pet i t i ve di st r i but i on show. We f i nd by a wi de exper i ence

t hat , even among t he poor er cl asses, f r om l o t o 12 and

12 1 per cent on t he or di nar y pr i ce of ar t i cl es i n t he most

const ant demand may be saved, af t er payi ng al l t he

necessar y cost s, i ncl udi ng 5 per cent a year on t he

capi t al us ed, s i mpl y by uni on among t he c ons umer s t o

do t he wor k of get t i ng what t hey want t o t hei r own

dwel l i ngs i n t he mos t ec onomi c al manner f or t hems el v es ,

i ns t ead of al l owi ng any one who c hoos es t o s et up a s hop

t o c ompet e f or t hei r c us t om.

I t c an s c ar c el y be doubt ed t hat muc h l ar ger s av i ngs

may be made on t he deal i ngs i n t hos e ar t i c l es wher e, t he

sal e bei ng l es s qui c k , t he per c ent age of pr of i t c har ged on

Cur r ent Ec onomi c Theor i es . 93

eac h ar t i c l e i s gr eat er . But , i ndependent l y of t hi s s av i ng

i n t he c os t of di s t r i but i on i n eac h par t i c ul ar c as e, t her e

i s a mode of pos s i bl e s av i ng, of t en l i t t l e t hought of , i n t he

suppr es s i on of t he needl es s c ent r es of s uppl } - whi c h now

add t o t he ex pens e wi t hout any c or r es pondi ng i nc r eas e

of c onv eni enc e, on whi c h I woul d s ay a f ew wor ds ,

av ai l i ng mv s el f of t he c ar ef ul c omput at i on c ont ai ned i n

r ef er enc e t o London i n one of t he Cent r al Boar d t r ac t s

on t he " Ec onomy of Co- oper at i on " : —

That t her e i s an enor mous was t e of l abour i n t he s y s t em of

di s t r i but i on i n us e at pr es ent , any one may s at i s f y hi ms el f who wi l l

cons i der what ar r angement s i t woul d be nat ur al t o adopt , i f we had

t o s uppl y any of our gr eat c ent r es of popul at i on wi t h t hei r dai l y

demands of f ood, or any ot her ar t i c l es of or di nar y c ons umpt i on,

as a c ommi s s ar i at depar t ment woul d s uppl y a c amp of equal s i z e.

A per s on c har ged wi t h s uc h a dut y woul d, I s uppos e, begi n by

as k i ng what i s t he f ur t hes t di s t anc e bey ond whi c h no dwel Ung

shal l be r emov ed f r om a c ent r e of s upph^ ; and when t hi s had

been s et t l ed, woul d map out t he pl ac e t o be s uppl i ed i nt o as many

ar eas as woul d be r equi r ed t o s ec ur e t hi s end i f a c ent r e wer e

pl ac ed i n t he mi ddl e of eac h, and woul d s et up hi s es t abl i s hment s

ac c or di ngl y . Cons i der i ng t he di s t anc e at whi c h peopl e ar e now

cont ent t o l i v e f r om t he s hops whenc e t he} - get t hei r or di nar y

suppHes , I t hi nk i t may be s ai d t hat i f t her e was no dwel l i ng mor e

t han one- t hi r d of a mi l e f r om s uc h a c ent r e, t he gr eat maj or i t y

bei ng of c our s e muc h near er , t he obj ec t woul d be s uf f i c i ent l y

at t ai ned, i n t hos e c as es wher e t he demand i s mos t f r equent ; c as es

wher e t he demands wer e mor e s pec i al or l es s f r equent bei ng met

bv a di mi ni s hed number of c ent r es , al wa^ - s , howev er , s y s t emat i c al l y

ar r anged. That i s t o s ay , a c i t y mi ght be s uppUed wi t h what ev er

i t s i nhabi t ant s or di nar i l y r equi r ed i n a t hor oughl y c onv eni ent and

ef f i c i ent manner , i f one good c ent r e of s uppl y wer e pl ac ed i n t he

mi ddl e of ev er y s quar e t hi r d of a mi l e — ni ne i n ev er y s quar e

mi l e — f or , i n t hi s c as e, i t i s c l ear t hat t he f ur t hes t di s t anc e whi c h

any one woul d hav e t o go f r om hi s dwel l i ng t o t hi s c ent r e, i f t he

st r eet s wer e l ai d out on a r egul ar pl an, woul d be t wo s i des of a

squar e, eac h one- s i x t h of a mi l e l ong. How many of s uc h c ent r es

woul d be want ed t o s uppl y London, and how many ac t ual l y ex i s t ?

The Pos t Of f i c e Di r ec t on, ' of London c ont ai ns t he names of al l

t he t r ader s who c ar r y on bus i nes s i n t h* t v as t c ent r e of popul at i on.

94

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o

cl as s i f i ed under t hei r oc c upat i ons . The map pr ef i x ed t o t he i s s ue

f or 1877 r epr es ent s 108 s quar e mi l es . But of t hi s s pac e c er t ai nl y

Page 47 of 69

sc ar c el y mor e t han hal f i s i nc l uded i n t he ar ea c ont ai ni ng t he

dwel l i ngs of t hos e t r ader s whos e addr es s es t he l i s t f ur ni s hes . For

t he map t ak es i n a t r ac t of at l eas t an av er age br eadt h of a mi l e,

36 s quar e mi l es i n al l , f or mi ng s ubur bs whos e r es i dent s ar e not

i nc l uded i n t hi s l i s t . And l ar ge deduc t i ons mus t be made f r om

t he r emai ni ng 72 mi l es t o al l ow f or t he i r r egul ar i t y of out l i ne of

London, and t he s pac es oc c upi ed by t he par k s and t he Thames ,

wi t hi n t hos e por t i ons wher e t he popul at i on i s dens e. Fi f t y - f our

squar e mi l es mi ght , I bel i ev e, be f ai r h^ t ak en as t he ar ea t o be

deal t wi t h. But , t o er r on t he r i ght s i de, I wi l l as s ume t hi s ar ea

t o be t wo- t hi r ds of t he whol e 72 s quar e mi l es . The c omput at i on

of ni ne c ent r es of s uppl y t o eac h of t hes e mi l es woul d gi v e 648

cent r al baz aar s as t he number of r et ai l es t abl i s hment s r equi r ed f or

t he c onv eni ent s uppl y of London wi t h t he ar t i c l es of mos t c ommon

cons umpt i on. What i s t he ac t ual number of es t abl i s hment s whi c h

London c ont ai ns i n t hi s ar ea ? I hav e t ak en 22 t r ades c onnec t ed

wi t h t he s uppl y of ( i ) al c ohol i c dr i nk s and t obac c o, ( 2) f ood and

hous ehol d want s , ( 3) c l ot hes and per s onal want s , ( 4) book s ,

medi c i nes , and s t at i oner y , and obt ai n t he f ol l owi ng r es ul t s , whi c h,

I s houl d add, do not pr of es s t o be mor e t han t ol er abl y near

comput at i ons ( 1879) : —

Tr ades c onnec t ed A\ i t h t he s uppl y of

—

I . — I nt ox i c at i ng Dr i nk s and Tobac c o.

Ex c es s ov er 648.

Tr ades . Number s .

Beer s el l er s 1610

Publ i c ans 5814

Tobac c oni s t s 1824

Wi ne Mer c hant s 2052

Tot al s I I 300

2. — Food and Hous ehol d

Bak er s 2394

But c her s I 59<>

Chandl er s 2479

Chees emonger s 826

Cof f ee- r oom Keeper s 1721

Conf ec t i oner s l oi S

Dai r y men 1824

Gr eengr oc er s 1881

Gr oc er s and Tea Deal er s — 2747

Oi l and Col our men I 379

Ac t ual .

Per c ent

962

. . 148

Page 48 of 69

. . . 5166

• • 797

. . . I I 76

. . 166

. . . 1404

. . 216

. . . 8708

335

) Want s .

. . . 1746

. . 269

. . . 948

146

. . . 1831

. . 281

. . . 178

26

. . . 1073

. . 165

. . . 370

57

1 1 76

. . i 8i

• • • 1233

Page 49 of 69

190

2099

• • 324

• • • 731

112

Tot al s 17865 . . . 11385

175

Cur r ent Ec onomi c Theor i es . 95

3. — Cl ot hes and Per s onal Want s .

Boot and Shoe Mak er s 3477

• 2829 . . . 436

Hai r dr es s er s 1083 . . . 435 . . . 67

Li nen Dr aper s 1368 . . . 720 . . . i i i

Tai l or s 2679 . . . 2031 . . . 313

Wat c hmak er s 1309 . . . 655 . . . l oi

Tot al s 9916 . . . 6670 . . . 205

4. — Book s , Medi c i nes , and St at i oner y .

Book s el l er s 912 . . . 264 . . . 40

Chemi s t s and Dr uggi s t s 893 . . . 245 . . . 37

St at i oner s 855 . . . 207 . . . 32

Tot al s 2660 . . . 716 . . . 36

Addi ng up t he f our l i s t s , we get a gr and t ot al of 41, 735 c ent r es

of s uppl y , agai ns t 14, 256 want ed — 27, 479 t oo many ac c or di ng t o

our pr ev i ous c omput at i on, or 26, 903, ev en i f , i n t he c as e of publ i c -

hous es , we s uppos e one pl ac ed at eac h c or ner of eac h ar ea of

one- t hi r d of a mi l e s quar e, i n addi t i on t o one i n t he mi ddl e —

251 ex i s t i ng s hops , on t he av er age of al l t hes e t r ades , f or ev er y

100 want ed.

I t i s out of my power t o f or m any ac c ur at e es t i mat e of t he

unnec es s ar y c os t c aus ed t o t he publ i c of London by t he pr es ent

was t ef ul s y s t em of di s t r i but i on bey ond what t hey woul d hav e t o

pay i f t hi s i ndi s pens abl e of hc e of br i ngi ng t he t hi ngs want ed and

t he per s ons who want t hem t oget her wer e di s c har ged wi t h t he

ec onomy whi c h a wel l - or der ed or gani s at i on mi ght s ec ur e. For ,

on t he one hand, when we t ak e t hos e t r ades whi c h deal i n ar t i c l es

not s o c ons t ant l y r equi r ed as t he ar t i c l es enumer at ed abov e, eac h

cas e woul d hav e t o be c ons i der ed by i t s el f , i n or der t o f or m an

es t i mat e of t he number of c ent r es of s uppl y r eas onabl y want ed,

so as t o c ompar e t hem wi t h t he number t hat c ompet i t i on gi v es us ;

whi l e, on t he ot her hand, t he l i s t of London t r ader s c ont ai ns a

l ar ge number of pr oduc er s , who mus t be s t r uc k of f upon an i nqui r y

i nt o t he was t e of di s t r i but i on; and, af t er al l , unl es s t he ac t ual

cos t of t he ex i s t i ng di s t r i but i v e c ent r es and t he amount of bus i nes s

done c oul d be as c er t ai ned and c ompar ed wi t h what we k now by

ex per i enc e t o be t he or di nar y c os t of doi ng t hi s amount of bus i nes s

Page 50 of 69

i n a s y s t em of wel l - or gani s ed c o- oper at i v e di s t r i but i on, we s houl d

get onl y gues s es , whi c h we mi ght mak e pr et t y near l y as wel l

wi t hout t he l abour of s uc h a c omput at i on. Ev en i f we c onf i ne

our s el v es t o t he t r ades abov e enumer at ed, wher e i n ev er y i ns t anc e

t her e i s a l ar ge ex c es s , t he gr eat i r r egul ar i t y i n t he degr ees of t hi s

96 Tl i c Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o

ex c es s , r angi ng, ev en i f publ i c ans ar e ex c l uded, f r om 26 per c ent

i n t he c as e of c hees emonger s t o 436 per c ent i n t hat of s hoemak er s ,

and t he v er y gr eat di f f er enc es whi c h t her e doubt l es s ar e i n t he

av er age t ur nov er of a s hop i n one t r ade as c ompar ed wi t h t hat i n

anot her t r ade, mak es i t i mpos s i bl e t o f or m mor e t han a v er y r ough

es t i mat e of t he i nc r eas ed c os t of di s t r i but i on wi t h whi c h London

al l ows i t s el f t o be c har ged, bec aus e i t s c i t i z ens do not c ombi ne i n a

r eas onabl e met hod of s uppl y i ng t hems el v es wi t h t he t hi ngs whi c h

t hey want ev er y day . Howev er , t o gi v e our i deas s ome l i t t l e

def i ni t enes s i n t he mat t er , c ons i der t hi s . I n t he 22 t r ades

enumer at ed abov e, we hav e f ound t hat t her e ar e 26, 903 s hops

mor e t han ar e nec es s ar y . No doubt many of t hes e s hops ar e s mal l .

Suppos e t hat , one wi t h anot her , t he c os t of eac h s hop i s , f or r ent ,

r at es , t ax es , l i ght , f uel , &c . , ; ^ i oo a y ear , and ; ^ i 50 f or t he wages

or c os t of l i v i ng of t he per s ons empl oy ed, we get a s um of

; ^ 6, 725, 750 as t he t ot al c os t of t hes e s hops , of whi c h i t i s , I t hi nk ,

a moder at e s uppos i t i on t hat at l eas t one- t hi r d of t he r ent , &c . ,

and t wo- t hi r ds of t he s er v i c e, woul d be s av ed i f t he wor k was done

by t he 14, 836 c ent r es needed, i ns t ead of t he 41, 735 ex i s t i ng.

Ther e woul d be a di r ec t s av i ng t o t he c i t i z ens of London of ov er

; ^ 4, ooo, ooo a y ear i n t hes e t r ades onl y , by s uppr es s i ng t he us el es s

cos t of unnec es s ar y es t abl i s hment s ; i ndependent l y of t he gr eat

ec onomy pr oduc ed by t ur ni ng t he pr of i t s of t he s el l er i nt o s av i ngs

t o t he buy er , whi c h, we k now, woul d gi v e t o t he c us t omer s of t he

r educ ed number of es t abl i s hment s , af t er pay i ng al l c os t s and t he

i nt er es t on c api t al , f r om i s . 6d. t o 2s . 6d. i n t he

, on what ev er

may be t he t ur nov er of t he 41 , 735 s hops wi t h whi c h we ar e deal i ng ;

an amount pr obabl y muc h under - es t i mat ed at an av er age of

; ^ 2, 5oo, or ; ^ i oo, ooo, ooo a y ear .

Nor mus t i t be f or got t en, when we ar e c ons i der i ng what mi ght

be s av ed by c o- oper at i on i n di s t r i but i on, t hat t he names of t he

t r ader s ment i oned abov e oc c upy 367 c ol umns onl y of t he 1, 565

i nc l uded i n t he Tr ades Di r ec t or y of t hat v as t magaz i ne of addr es s es

f ur ni s hed by t he Pos t Of f i c e, of whom by f ar t he gr eat er par t ar e

engaged i n di s t r i but i on. I t r epr es ent s but a f r ac t i on of t he was t e

whi c h l i es at t he door of c ompet i t i on i n London onl y ; t hough,

f or t he r eas ons al r eady gi v en, I r ef r ai n f r om any at t empt t o r educ e

t hi s was t e t o an amount appr ec i abl e by f i gur es .

Now t hi s gr eat s av i ng whi c h as s oc i at i on f or di s t r i but i on c an

ef f ec t woul d not be pur c has ed by a di mi nut i on of t he c onv eni enc e

of f er ed by t he pr es ent s y s t em. On t he c ont r ar y , t her e woul d b<;

an i nc r eas e of t hi s c onv eni enc e,

Cur r ent Ec onomi c Theor i es .

97

The ac t ual needl es s mul t i pl i c at i on of s hops does not pr ev ent a

l ar ge par t of t he r es i denc es i n London f r om bei ng muc h f ur t her

t han t he one- t hi r d of a mi l e as s umed by me as t he ex t r eme

di s t anc e of any hous e f r om s ome c ent r e of s uppl y ; f or t hes e

cent r es ar e di s t r i but ed wi t h r ef er enc e, not t o t he gr eat es t c on-

veni enc e of t he i nhabi t ant s , but t o t he opi ni ons ent er t ai ned by

t hei r pr opr i et or s of t he s i t uat i ons wher e t hey wi l l hav e t he bes t

chanc es of at t r ac t i ng not i c e and obt ai ni ng c us t om. Ther ef or e

t hey f i l l t he pr i nc i pal t hor oughf ar es i n c ont i nuous l i nes , whi l e

t hey l eav e l ar ge ar eas of popul at i on wi t h a v er y s c ant y number of

Page 51 of 69

shops. And t hese shops ar e not as t hey woul d be upon a syst em

of or gani sed di st r i but i on, al l f i r st cl ass, wher e i n ever y i nst ance

ent i r e r el i ance mi ght be pl aced on t he qual i t y of t he goods suppl i ed

and t he f ai r ness of t he pr i ces char ged, because al l woul d be

suppl i ed f r om t he same whol esal e cent r es wi t h whi ch t hey woul d .

be connect ed i n f eder al uni on; al l woul d be conduct ed by

manager s, appoi nt ed by commi t t ees of pur chaser s who woul d

over haul al l t hei r pr oceedi ngs, and l i abl e t o summar y di smi ssal

at l east , i f not t o ot her penal t i es, f or any det ect ed r oguer y. The

act ual shops may be sai d t o be of al l degr ees of goodness or badness,

agr eei ng wi t h each ot her onl y i n one r espect , t hat t he or di nar y

buyer can never get any knowl edge of t he amount of addi t i onal

char ge beyond t he cost pr i ce t o whi ch t he supposed economy of

compet i t i ve t r ade subj ect s hi m.

Now, London i s onl y a speci men of t he syst em uni ver sal

over t he whol e count r y. How l ar ge a f und woul d be

pl aced at t he di sposal of t he co- oper at or s by t hi s mer e

savi ng of usel ess cost i n di st r i but i on, out of whi ch t o

r ewar d usef ul act i vi t y, i s, I t hi nk, made ver y cl ear by such

f act s as t hese. They may r el i eve us al t oget her f r om t he

appr ehensi on t hat co- oper at i on must gi ve up t he hope of

r ai si ng t he masses because i t s r esour ces woul d be used up

i n payi ng i t s chi ef s. Ther e ar e ampl e f unds i n t he savi ng

on compet i t i ve wast e t o ef f ect bot h obj ect s.

The consi der at i ons adduced i n t he l ast sent ence appl y

t o l i f e as i t i s i n our compet i t i ve wor l d, and t he i sol at ed

homes nat ur al t o a l i f e so ci r cumst anced. But i n con-

t r ast i ng t he mot i ves whi ch may l ead men t o ener get i c

wor k i n a co- oper at i ve soci et y, we must not l eave out t he

G

qS Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Economi c Theor i es.

advant ages whi ch t he co- oper at or woul d der i ve f r om t he

pr i nci pl e of associ at i on when i t i s appl i ed t o t he f or mat i on

of uni t ar y homes, as i t i s appl i ed al r eady by M. Godi n, at

Gui se, and, wi t h t he gr owt h of co- opci at i v2 uni on, must

cer t ai nl y be appl i ed mor e and mor e ext ensi vel y.

Uni t ar y homes wi l l , I concei ve, be t o co- oper at i on what

monast er i es wer e i n t he Mi ddl e Ages t o t he Chur ch: t he

f or t r esses by whi ch i t wi l l t ake possessi on of soci et y, and

gr adual l y conver t manki nd t o obedi ence t o t he new f ai t h.

Li f e i n t hem wi l l be gr eat l y mor e f ul l of physi cal enj oy-

ment f or t he mass of manki nd. Li f e i n t hem wi l l be

i nf i ni t el y mor e f ul l of mor al sat i sf act i on t o al l t he nobl est

spi r i t s of our r ace. They wi l l see i n t hese homes t he

means of abol i shi ng t hat ever - deepeni ng dyke, dug by our

compet i t i ve soci et y bet ween t he " t wo nat i on^ " of r i ch

and poor , and l ook f or war d t o t he ever - i ncr easi ng means

of gener al wel l - bei ng whi ch such i nst i t ut i ons wi l l secur e

t o manki nd by t he deposi t of accumul at ed weal t h l ef t

behi nd by each successi ve gener at i on. So t hat t he desi r e

f or t hat i sol at ed f ami l y exi st ence whi ch i s t he gr eat sour ce

of t he per pet ual r ace af t er weal t h wi l l cease. I t wi l l yi el d

t o a desi r e t o mai nt ai n i nst i t ut i ons f el t by ever yone al i ke

t o be t he per manent sour ce bot h of i ndi vi dual happi ness

and gener al wel l - bei ng ; unt i l t he not i on pr eval ent among

many pol i t i cal economi st s, t hat t hi s r ace af t er weal t h i s

t he onl y ef f i ci ent mot i ve t o human act i vi t y, wi l l come t o

be cl assed among t he comi cal absur di t i es i nt o whi ch

cl ever men have f al l en, who, hvi ng i n an age j ust

emer gi ng f r om bar bar i sm, f anci ed t hat t he soci et y wher ei n

t hey l i ved had spoken t he l ast wor d i n t he " Hi st or y of

Ci vi l i sat i on. " *

* The vi ews advocat ed i n t hi s chapt er wi l l be r ej ect ed by t hose who concei ve t hat ,

because t he st r uggl e f or exi st ence i s a l aw of physi cal bei ng, i t must al so be a l aw of

spi r i t ual bei ng. To al l obj ect or s of t hi s cl ass I r epl y : You ar e conf usi ng t he r oot wi t h

t he f r ui t , whi ch i ndeed depends upon, but i s ver y di f f er ent f r om i t . Sel f - asser t i on i s t he

Page 52 of 69

f i r st condi t i on of i ndi vi dual bei ng; i t does not f ol l ow t hat sel f - asser t i on i s i t s end. On

t he cont r ar y, t he t heor y of devel opment , whi ch I accept as sci ent i f i cal l y est abUshed,

t eaches t hat , i n t he pr ogr ess of exi st ence on t he ear t h, t he opposi t e pr i nci pl e, of

Chapt er VI .

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o t he St at e.

CO- OPERATI ON has been pr esent ed i n t hese pages

as essent i al l y a vol unt ar y syst em. I t s r oot has been

t r aced back t o t hat deepest of al l pr i nci pl es known

t o us: f r ee, t hat i s, sel f - gover ni ng, r easonabl e wi l l ; t hat

power whi ch, bei ng, as I bel i eve, t he ul t i mat e sour ce of

al l exi st ence, has come out on t hi s ear t h wher e we dwel l

as t he r esul t of t he l ong successi on of advances con-

di t i oned by t he st r uggl e f or exi st ence, dur i ng t he

unnumber ed ages r ecor ded i n t he f r agment ar y l eaves of

t he " St one Book. " When I ct hyosaur i , Pl esi osaur i ,

Megat her i a, and al l t he ot her t r i bes of monst er s had

i mpr oved t hemsel ves away; when t he huge f er n f or est s

of t he past had st or ed up i n beds of coal t he f or ce r adi at ed

i n t i mes l ong gone by f r om t he cent r al or b ; t hen, ami dst a

wor l d of f l ower i ng and f r ui t - bear i ng pl ant s and shr ubs, a

wor l d of br i ght - hued i nsect s and many- voi ced bi r ds, man,

t he cont empor ar y of t he dog, t he el ephant , t he camel , t he

hor se, t he sheep, and t he cow, appear ed, t o " or der and t o

dr ess " t he abode, mi de l i t by t he nat ur al devel opment of

combi ned act i on, has mani f est ed i t sel f wi t h cont i nual l y i ncr easi ng compl et eness. Gases

have combi ned i nt o l i qui ds and sol i ds; l i qui ds and sol i ds have i mi t ed t o f or m pl ant s.

On t he pl ant has r eposed consci ous ani mal l i f e. Wi t h t he consci ousness of sur r oundi ngs

has appear ed t he i nt el l i gence capabl e of combi ni ng t hem as means f or i t s own ends.

And beneat h t hi s i nt el Ugence t her e has become mani f est a r easonabl e sel f - gover ni ng

wi U, whi ch cl ai ms t he r i ght t o det er mi ne t hose ends. To go back t o t he st r uggl e f or

exi st ence as t he l aw of r easonabl e l i f e, i s t o i gnor e t hi s vast pr ogr ess, and t r eat men as f i

t hey wer e onl y bags of gas. No doubt t he st r uggl e cont i nues. I f i t ceased, i ndi vi dual

exi st ence must di sappear . But t o appeal t o i t as a pr i nci pl e capabl e of pr oduci ng a t r ue

human soci et y i s, as has been not i ced on page 86, much l i ke appeal i ng t o t he f or ce of

gr avi t at i on t o bui l d a br i dge.

[ Though of a cont r over si al char act er , t he l ast t wo par agr aphs of t hi s chapt er have been

l ef t i n, so t hat t he st udent unacquai nt ed wi t h t he ear l i er edi t i on of t hi s Manual may

have an oppor t uni t y of seei ng what was t he ment al at t i t ude of t he wr i t er s t o t hi s

quest i on. Any f ur t her r ef er ence t o uni t ar y homes has been ehmi nat ed. — W. C]

100 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o t he St at e.

st r uggl e f or t he dwel l i ng of a cr eat ur e who coul d r esol ve

t he di scor ds of nat ur e i nt o t he har moni es of r eason.

Our f i r st chapt er has t r aced t he char act er of t hat pr ocess

by whi ch t he Di vi ne Aut hor of t he uni ver se, wor ki ng

al ways t hr ough appr opr i at e means, st r uck t he chor ds f r om

whence t hi s har mony can be evol ved; by t he mani f est a-

t i on of Hi s own i nf i ni t e l ove i n t he per son of Chr i st ,

awaki ng i n t he hear t of man t he echoes of a r esponsi ve l ove,

whi ch shoul d gr adual l y subst i t ut e i t s di vi ne mel ody f or

t he di scor dant t ones of nat ur al sel f i shness. But har mony

consi st s i n many di f f er ent sounds combi ned so t hat each,

whi l e pr eser vi ng i t s i ndi vi dual di st i nct ness, cont r i but es t o

t he al l - embr aci ng i deal uni t y. Nat ur al l y, t her ef or e, t he

i dea t hus i nt r oduced i nt o t he wor l d cr eat ed f or i t sel f an

or gani sat i on — a st at e whi ch, under t he name of t he

Chur ch, soon began t o asser t over agai nst t he empi r e of

t he Caesar s, t he cl ai m t o a sway l ar ger even t han t hat

col ossal cent r e of pol i t i cal mi ght — a ki ngdom of God,

i ncl udi ng al i ke " Gr eek and Jew, Bar bar i an, Scyt hi an,

sl ave and f r ee, " combi ned i n common wi l l i ng obedi ence

t o i t s Di vi ne head; whose power r est ed, not on t he vi si bl e

f or ce swayed by t he mast er of f or t y l egi ons, but i n t he

i nvi si bl e power t hat const r ai ns t he hear t s of men.

Page 53 of 69

Bet ween t hese r i val st at es, each cl ai mi ng unl i mi t ed

obedi ence, soon ar ose a deadl y cont est , wher e t he vi ct or y

decl ar ed, not f or t he ext er nal , but f or t he i nt er nal power ;

not f or t he f l esh, but f or t he spi r i t ; not f or t he st r ongest

bat t al i ons, but f or t he deepest i nf l uences; not f or t he

Eagl es, but f or t he Cr oss.

The t i me came when t he geni us whi ch was t hr oned on

Mount Pal at i ne had t o yi el d t o t he geni us t hat pr esi ded

over t he " Lor d' s Tabl e " — when t he new Chr i st i an St at e

swal l owed up t he anci ent St at e of Rome, and began t o

moul d, accor di ng t o i t s own t endenci es, t hat power f ul

agency of l egal mi ght v^kj j pRt e^ i t had been f or mor e

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o t he St at e. l oi

t han t hr ee cent ur i es engaged i n a " st r uggl e f or

exi st ence " ; an i ssue whi ch may r eassur e t hose who f ear ,

as many seem at t he pr esent day t o f ear , t hat i n t hi s

" st r uggl e f or exi st ence " t he out war d wi l l pr ove t oo

st r ong f or t he i nwar d, t he bar k t oo st r ong f or t he sap, and

t hat t o pr eser ve mor al t r ut h f r om per i shi ng i t i s necessar y

t o f eed i t upon a di et ar y of undemonst r abl e assumpt i ons.

That t hi s l egal st at e was a t ough mcr sel f or t he Chur ch t o

di gest 1 do not deny. I t had t o swal l ow an enor mous

mass of mat er i al ver y l i t t l e pr epar ed f or assi mi l at i on, and

st i l l suf f er s f r om t he i ndi gest i on t hus occasi oned. Yet i t

has done an i mmense wor k, of whi ch at t he pr esent day we

ar e l i abl e not t o appr eci at e t he i mpor t ance, because t he

wor k has been done so compl et el y t hat scar cel y any t r ace

of t he ol d st at e of t hi ngs r emai ns i n our wor l d; and

because f ew of us ar e suf f i ci ent l y wel l acquai nt ed wi t h t he

past t o r epr oduce i t as i t was. The Chur ch i n di gest i ng

t he ol d body pol i t i c has expel l ed f r om i t sl aver y. Thus i t

has made possi bl e t hat mor e per f ect or gani sat i on want ed

t o compl et e t he devel opment of t he good seed sown i , 8oo

y^ar s si nce m t he l and of Pal est i ne; t o r eal i se t hat " mor e

excel l ent way " set by t he gr eat Apost l e of t he Gent i l es

bef or e hi s Cor i nt hi an conver t s i n wor ds t hat cannot be

bet 4: er ed ; and t o make of t he body pol i t i c such a body as

shal l f ul f i l t he i deas of a t r ue st at e, whi ch t he same

Apost l e pr esent s as t he nat ur al out come of t hi s " way. "

By t he el i mi nat i on f r om human soci et y of t hi s

i ndi gest i bl e el ement of sl aver y, and t he cot empor aneous

gr owt h of or der l y pol i t i cal f r eedom, t he nat ur al at t endant

on i t s el i mi nat i on, and nowher e at t he pr esent age mor e

compl et el y at t ai ned t han i n our own Uni t ed Ki ngdom,

t he way i s pr epar ed f or t he second gr eat st ep i n t he

evol ut i on of humani t y — t he f or mat i on of a Chur ch whi ch

shal l not onl y t each men ever ywher e t o pr ay t hat God' s

ki ngdom may come, Hi s wi l l be " done on ear t h as i t i s i n

102 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o t he St at e.

heaven, " but shal l nour i sh i n t hem t he ear nest det er mi na-

t i on t hat Hi s wi l l shal l be done, f or t hey wi U do i t ; t hat

t hi s ki ngdom shal l come, f or t hey wi l l not r est f r om t hei r

l abour s t i l l t hey see i t est abl i shed.

Now, t hi s det er mi nat i on t he co- oper at or who t akes t he

vi ew pr esent ed i n t hese pages of what co- oper at i on has t o

do, must set bef or e hi msel f as hi s det er mi nat i on. Thi s

st at e i s t he st at e t hat he has t o br i ng about , car r yi ng

on t he wor k of t he Chur ch of t he f i r st cent ur i es t o i t s

l ogi cal i ssue. As t he Chr i st i ans of t he f i r st t hr ee cen-

t ur i es r ai sed over agai nst t he pol i t i cal st at e an eccl esi as-

t i cal st at e or Chur ch whi ch absor bed i t , so has t he co-

oper at or t o r ai se over agai nst t he pr esent pol i t i co-

eccl esi ast i cal st at e a new soci al st at e ; a vol unt ar y body

Page 54 of 69

gr owi ng up by i t s i nher ent ener gi es l i ke t he Chur ch of

ol d, but f ul f i l l i ng what t he Chur ch of ol d coul d onl y

i ndi cat e i n hope; t i l l i t may say wi t h f ar deeper t r ut h

what was sai d of t he Bi bl e Soci et y by one of i t s ear l y

pr esi dent s — " I f i t cannot r econci l e al l opi ni ons i t uni t es

al l hear t s. " Because t aki ng as i t s st ar t i ng poi nt t hat

sent i ment of gener al benevol ence, t hat sympat hy wi t h

human necessi t i es, whi ch i s t he common out come of al l

Chr i st i an t eachi ng, however wi del y t he t eacher s may

di f f er i n t he t heor i es connect ed by t hem wi t h i t , t hi s

soci al Chur ch wi l l be abl e t o r econci l e t he mani f ol dness

of bel i ef i n t he oneness of pr act i cal act i on.

Co- oper at i on, t hen, i s cal l ed on t o cr eat e a new soci al

st at e, whi ch, gr owi ng over agai nst t he pr esent st at e as

t he Chur ch di d of ol d, onl y now under i t s shel t er i nst ead

of i n conf l i ct wi t h i t , may, l i ke i t s pr ecur sor , ul t i mat el y

absor b t he l aw- maki ng power wi t hi n i t s own ci r cl e, and

can t hen compl et e what may be r equi si t e f or i t s per f ect

consol i dat i on, by t he same sor t of aut hor i t y, as t hat

wher eby, i n al l ages and count r i es, t he mi nor i t y have

been r equi r ed t o gi ve up f or a r easonabl e compensat i on,

The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o t he St at e. 103

r i ght s of whi ch t he maj or i t y f eel t hat t he cessi on i s

necessar y f or t he gener al wel f ar e.

But as of ol d, so now, t hi s new st at e must spr i ng up

f r eel y, i n t hat soi l whi ch t he act i on of t he ol der Chur ch,

or t he i nt el l i gent and mor al cul t ur e f ost er ed di r ect l y or

i ndi r ect l y by i t , has del i ver ed f r om t he i ncubus of

sl aver y and t he despot i sm of t he body pol i t i c. I t s cl ai m on

t he exi st i ng st at e i s si mpl y f or l eave t o gr ow and devel op

\ i t s own power i n peaceabl e obedi ence t o- t he l aws whi ch,

i n t he Uni t ed Ki ngdom at l east , af f or d i t al l t hat i t can

r equi r e, by cl ot hi ng t he member s of co- oper at i ve

soci et i es wi t h cor por at e pr i vi l eges f or t r adi ng pur poses,

and gi vi ng t hem t he unr est r i ct ed r i ght of hol di ng l and.

A gr eat conf usi on of i deas has pr evai l ed on t hi s mat t er ,

not i n Engl and so much as el sewher e, on t he Cont i nent of

Eur ope, and l at t er l y i n t he Uni t ed St at es of Nor t h

Amer i ca. Because al l soci al r ef or mer s l ook, and must

of necessi t y l ook f or war d, t o t he f or mat i on, as t he out -

come of t hei r r ef or ms, of a st at e of t hi ngs wher e t he

cust oms and r ul es of t he r ef or med soci et y wi l l be

i dent i cal wi t h t he l aws of t he count r i es wher e i t f l our i shed ;

t her ef or e i t has been supposed t hat a shor t cut t o t hi s

r ef or med condi t i on of t hi ngs l ay t hr ough t he l aw- maki ng

power , t o be exer ci sed by means of uni ver sal suf f r age

by t he mass of t he popul at i on, who shoul d subst i t ut e

f or t he spi r i t of God act uat i ng t he wi l l of man t he wor ds

of man or der i ng men' s l i ves.

The del usi on has been al r eady denounced i n t hese

pages, and cannot be denounced t oo st r ongl y. One

mor e f at al t o t he hopes of an abi di ng soci al r ef or m i t i s

i mpossi bl e t o i magi ne. I t i s anal ogous t o t he f ol l y of a

chi l d who pl ant s f l ower s t o get a gar den qui ckl y. I t i s

t o suppose t hat a t r ee can gr ow wi t hout r oot s, or t hat

we may gat her " gr apes of t hor ns " and " f i gs of t hi st l es. "

Whet her t hat devel opment of t he pr i nci pl e of l ove, of

104 The Rel at i on of Co- oper at i on t o t he St at e.

whi ch t he Chr i st i an r el i gi on has been t he hi st or i cal

nur se, has yet at t ai ned a gr owt h deep and wi de enough

t o pr oduce t he soci al r ef or ms sought by co- oper at i on i s

a l egi t i mat e subj ect of quest i on. To t he wr i t er s of t hi s

Manual t he si gns of t he t i mes seem hopef ul , ot her wi se

Page 55 of 69

i t woul d be usel ess f or t hem t o under t ake t he l abour

of wr i t i ng i t . On t hi s mat t er t hey can onl y hope, wi t hout

vent ur i ng t o dogmat i se. But of one t hi ng t hey must

asser t t hei r undoubt i ng convi ct i on, t hat i f t he co- oper at i ve

spi r i t , wi t h t he f aci l i t i es of act i on now open t o i t , cannot

succeed i n f or mi ng a r ef or med soci al st at e, t he exi st i ng

st at e wi l l be absol ut el y power l ess t o cr eat e a co- oper at i ve

spi r i t . As wel l mi ght we suppose, t hat i f St . Paul had

succeeded i n conver t i ng t he Emper or Ner o t o t he

Chr i st i an f ai t h, t hat r el i gi on mi ght have been est abl i shed

as a t r ue spi r i t ual i nf l uence by t he j avel i ns and swor ds

of t he Roman l egi ons.

Par t I I I .

THE PRACTI CE OF

CO- OPERATI ON.

PART I I I .

Chapt er VI I .

The Appl i cat i on of Co- oper at i on t o Di st r i but i on.

A PART f r om t he mor al benef i t at t endi ng al l modes of

/ - \ co- oper at i on, i f t hey ar e ani mat ed by a genui ne

desi r e t o wor k f or t he common good, t he benef i ci al

r esul t s ar i si ng f r om i t s apphcat i on t o di st r i but i on r est

upon t he f act i l l ust r at ed i n t he chapt er on t he

Economi cal Basi s of Co oper at i on — t hat t her e i s i n t he

pr esent syst em of compet i t i ve t r ade an enor mous wast e.

Not t hat t hose who under t ake t hi s of f i ce do not

endeavour t o do t hei r wor k as economi cal l y as t hey can,

but t hat , f r om ci r cumst ances whi ch i t woul d t ake mor e

space t han can be conveni ent l j ' spar ed t o t r ace i n det ai l

t her e i s act ual l y absor bed i n t he oper at i on of br i ngi ng

t he desi r abl e t hi ngs pr oduced i n t he wor l d t o t he hands

of t hose who r equi r e t hem, a par t of t hese t hi ngs much

l ar ger t han i s needed i n or der t o get t he wor k done

t hor oughl y wel l .

On t hi s f act t he economi cal st r engt h of co- oper at i ve

di st r i but i on r est s i n pr act i ce. The sur pl us over cost

t hus put i nt o t he pocket s of t he consumer s, as t he r esul t

of uni on t o suppl y t hemsel ves, f or ms t he backbone of

co- oper at i on. I t gi ves t o t hat syst em of t r ade a sol i d

commer ci al basi s on whi ch t o bui l d t he co- oper at i ve

edi f i ce, i n what i s undoubt edl y, i n my j udgment , at

l east , t he saf est , t he most usef ul , and best pl an f or ever y

one who does not want co- oper at i on t o st op at di st r i but i on.

Thi s pl an, popul ar l y known as t he Rochdal e scheme,

f r om i t s havi ng been i nt r oduced t o gener al accept ance

i o8 The Appl i cat i on of Co- oper at i on t o Di st r i but i on.

by t he Equi t abl e Pi oneer s of Rochdal e, i s t o sel l al l

goods at t he pr i ces char ged b} ^ r espect abl e pr i vat e

t r ader s, and r et ur ni ng t he sur pl us over cost and i nt er est

on t he capi t al i nvest ed t o t he member s, as di vi dends

on t hei r pur chases.

As t he success of a di st r i but i ve soci et y must depend

upon t he amount of t r ade whi ch i t can do, i t i s desi r abl e

t o pl ace as l i t t l e i mpedi ment as possi bl e i n t he way of

member s j oi ni ng by not r equi r i ng as a condi t i on of

member shi p t he hol di ng of mor e shar es t han t he maj or i t y

of t hose l i kel y t o j oi n can easi l y af f or d t o pay up.

Some soci et i es admi t per sons t o t he pr i vi l eges of mem-

ber shi p f r ee, bel i evi ng t hat not hi ng shoul d be pl aced i n

Page 56 of 69

t he way of anyone wi shi ng t o j oi n ; ot her s demand t he

payment of sums var j ang f r om 6d. t o i s. 6d. , i n each

case t he member agr eei ng t o t ake up f r om one t o f i ve

shar es of t he val ue of ^^i each, t hese sums t o be made up

ei t her f r om subscr i pt i ons or deduct i ons f r om di vi dend

unt i l t he whol e ar e pai d up.

I n r egar d t o t he f r ami ng and r egi st er i ng of r ul es, or

al t er at i ons of r ul es, t he best pl an i s t o communi cat e wi t h

t he Co- oper at i ve Uni on, who wi l l gi ve al l t he advi ce and

assi st ance necessar y. The past and t he pr esent gener at i on

of co- opei at or s i s l ar gel y i ndebt ed f or t he advant ages t hey

now possess, and i t ought t o r ecei ve t he hear t y suppor t

of al l who have l ear ned t o l ook upon co- oper at i on as a

connect ed scheme of act i on, havi ng as i t s ai m t o use t he

vast power s of moder n i ndust r y f or t he gr adual el evat i on

of t he masses now cr ushed beneat h t he gr i ndst one of

compet i t i ve st r uggl es. Ther e i s anot her cl ass of benef i t s

mor e commonl y val ued per haps, whi ch co- oper at i ve uni on

has al r eady pl aced wi t hi n t he r each of t he co- oper at i ve

body — t hose ar i si ng f r om t he act i on of t he Co- oper at i ve

Whol esal e Soci et i es, bot h of Engl and and Scot l and.

_ The pr esent gener at i on, per haps, cannot f ul l y appr eci at e

The Appl i cat i on of Co- oper at i on t o Di st r i but i on. 109

t he ext ent of t hi s benef i t , but t hose who f ought

t hr ough t he har d bat t l e whi ch co- oper at i ve soci et i es,

f or med bef or e any such Whol esal es exi st ed, had t o f i ght

agai nst t he opposi t i on of t he pr i vat e r et ai l t r ader s, i n

or der t o open t he way t o get t he ar t i cl es t hey want ed

t o sel l of as good qual i t y and on as easy t er ms as t hei r

opponent s. But t hi s i s ent i r el y al t er ed si nce co- oper at i ve

uni on has cr eat ed gr eat cent r al i nst i t ut i ons, whi ch, f r om

t he magni t ude of t hei r t r ansact i ons, can af f or d t o empl oy

ski l l ed buyer s and get access t o t he best mar ket s, wher e

t hese buyer s, deal i ng f or r eady money and buyi ng on a

ver y l ar ge scal e, can obt ai n t he most f avour abl e t er ms,

whi ch t he magi c of associ at i on pl aces at t he command of

t he smal l est soci et i es equal l y wi t h t he l ar gest . Lar ge

and pr osper ous soci et i es somet i mes i magi ne, and, I

bel i eve, ar e i n gener al mi st aken i n i magi ni ng, t hat t hey

can obt ai n f or t hemsel ves i n t he open mar ket on bet t er

t er ms t han t hey can secur e f r om t he Whol esal e Soci et i es,

not onl y ar t i cl es wher e t he cost of car r i age may gi ve a

gr eat advant age t o a l ocal cent r e of suppl y, but even

ar t i cl es wher e t her e i s not hi ng t o be gai ned i n t hi s r espect .

But many of t he l ar gest soci et i es, af t er t r yi ng bot h pl ans,

have f ound t hat t o be suppl i ed t hr ough t he whol esal e

cent r es i s mor e advant ageous t o t hem t han t he at t empt

t o get t hei r suppl i es i ndependent l y of t hem. Thei r

exper i ence conf i r ms what mi ght r easonabl y be ant i ci -

pat ed- — t he advant age t o be der i ved f r om a wel l - or gani sed

syst em of col l ect i ve pur chases, whi ch shal l ut i l i se t he

cust om of t he whol e body f or t he benef i t of ever y member .

Fur t her , soci et i es woul d do wel l t o r emember t hat ever y

sover ei gn spent out si de t he or gani sat i ons cr eat ed by

t hemsel ves t o meet t hei r needs, and whi ch have no

exi st ence apar t f r om t hemsel ves, i s maki ng i t easy f or

t he out si de t r ader t o compet e wi t h t hem. Just as we

pr each l oyal t y on t he par t of t he i ndi vi dual member t o

no The Appl i cat i on of Co- oper at i on t o Di st r i but i on.

hi s own soci et y, so as soci et i es we shoul d, f or t he same

r easons, be l oyal t o our own whol esal e i nst i t ut i ons.

An i mpor t ant quest i on about whi ch a gr eat deal has

been sai d and wr i t t en i s : \ Vhat r at e of di vi dend shoul d

soci et i es endeavour t o pay ? The r epl y i s : As l ar ge a

di vi dend as t he pr i ces pr evai l i ng i n t he l ocal i t y wher e t he

Page 57 of 69

soci et y i s est abl i shed make possi bl e. Taki ng account of

t he pur pose co- oper at i on on t he Rochdal e pl an had i n

vi ew, t hi s i s a bet t er pl an t han t hat i n oper at i on i n Ci vi l

Ser vi ce St or es, at whi ch goods ar e sol d at such pr i ces as

wi l l j ust pay t he cost of management . Those who

f ounded t hese st or es di d not pr of ess t o have, and no

doubt had not , any ot her obj ect i n vi ew t han obt ai ni ng

ar t i cl es genui ne i n t hei r ki nd and on t he cheapest t er ms

pr act i cabl e by buyi ng t hem i n t he gr oss. The syst em

or i gi nat ed i n t he act i on of f our cl er ks i n t he Post Of f i ce

who j oi ned t o buy a chest of t ea and di vi ded i t amongst

t hemsel ves. Fi ndi ng t hat t hey saved a consi der abl e sum

by t he oper at i on t hey det er mi ned t o r epeat i t , and

af t er war ds ext ended i t t o t he pur chase of ot her t hi ngs

whi ch t hey r equi r ed. The const i t ut i on of t he Ci vi l

Ser vi ce vSt or es i s pr eci sel y what woul d r easonabl y ar i se

f r om uni on f or such obj ect s, and such onl y.

Now% i f t hese wer e our mai n obj ect s somet hi ng mi ght

be sai d f or adopt i ng t hei r met hods, but as w^e have f ar

mor e i mpor t ant obj ect s t o wor k f or t han mer el y t o

suppl y ar t i cl es good i n t hei r ki nd at t he l east at t ai nabl e

cost ; i f we ai m at what has al r eady been out l i ned i n

ear l i er pages, t hen t he const i t ut i on of t he Ci vi l Ser vi ce

St or es i s noc at al l adapt ed t o pr omot e t hese ai ms,

and, t her ef or e, shoul d not be i mi t at ed by any per sons

who set t hese f ur t her obj ect s bef or e t hem as t hei r goal .

To achi eve t hose ends we have i n vi ew we must have, as

an i ndi spensabl e condi t i on of ef f ect i ve act i on, col l ect i ve

i ncome. When ever y / ^i . ooo of busi ness done, af t er payi ng

The Appl i cat i on of Co- oper at i on t o Di st r i but i on. i i i

al ) cost , and a di vi dend of , say,

5 per c ent on i nv es t ed

capi t al , wi l l y i el d a s ur pl us i nc ome of f r om ; f i oo t o ; ^ I 25

gai ned by t he member s out of t hei r hous ehol d ex pendi t ur e,

wi t hout need of s t i nt i ng any par t of t hei r us ual out l ay ,

i t wi l l be s een at onc e what a c ol l ec t i v e power t hey may

t hus ac qui r e f or any c ommon pur pos e. Tak i ng l as t

year ' s s al es ( 1914) of t he 1, 390 di s t r i but i v e s oc i et i es we

f i nd t hat af t er pr ov i di ng

1, 556, 160 as i nt er es t on s har e

capi t al , ; ^ 49, 758 as bonus and wages ,

110, 130 f or educ a-

t i onal and

96, 408 f or c har i t abl e pur pos es , t her e was

l ef t as di v i dend

13, 501, 825. Thi s s um, howev er ,

r epr es ent s a di v i dend of 3s . i n t he

, whi c h i s f r om i s .

t o I S. 6d. i n ex c es s of what s oc i et i es woul d pay i f t hey

sol d t hei r goods at t he pr i c es at whi c h s uc h ar t i c l es

coul d be obt ai ned f r om t he pr i v at e t r ader s i n t he di s t r i c t .

I t has been obj ec t ed t o t he di v i dend s y s t em t hat i t

pr ev ent s t he gr owt h of c o- oper at i on by c hec k i ng pur -

chas es at t he s t or es i n c ons equenc e of t he hi gh pr i c es

char ged. Thi s c an onl y be t r ue wher e pr i c es ar e c har ged

hi gher t han t hos e c ur r ent i n t he di s t r i c t , and whi c h i s

somet i mes done i n or der t o pay a hi gher di v i dend Ev en

t hen, ex per i enc e has s hown t hat wher e member s c an,

t hey ar e ev en wi l l i ng t o pay pr i c es s l i ght l y i n ex c es s of

what ar e c har ged by pr i v at e t r ader s , and t hat a s oc i et y

pay i ng a di v i dend of 2S. i n t he pound wi l l be mor e l i k el y

t o mak e pr ogr es s t han one pay i ng i s . 6d. , ev en i f t he

l at t er i s gi v i ng t he di f f er enc e i n t he pr i c e t o goods . I t

i s obv i ous , howev er , t hat f or a s oc i et y t o pay 4s . , as s ome

soc i et i es i n t he Nor t h of Engl and do, means c har gi ng

suc h pr i c es as t hos e ear ni ng l ow wages c annot pay , and

t hey ar e t hus depr i v ed of any of t he adv ant ages whi c h

co- oper at i on br i ngs t o t hos e who ar e bet t er of f and c an

pay t hes e pr i c es . Fur t her , i i i s bec omi ng qui t e a c us t om

f or t he pr i v at e t r ader s t o f i x t hei r pr i c es j us t as muc h

bel ow t hos e of t he s t or e as wi l l at t r ac t pur c has er s t o

I l 2 The Appl i c at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Di s t r i but i on.

Page 58 of 69

t hei r s hops . I t has been pr ov ed t hat t he poor i n a

di s t r i c t hav e had t o pay mor e f or t hei r goods bec aus e

t he s t or e get s hi gh pr i c es and pay s a hi gh di v i dend. Thi s

pr ac t i c e i s not gener al , but i t i s a s t r ong ar gument

agai ns t hi gh pr i c es and hi gh di v i dends .

Muc h has been s ai d, and s ai d j us t l y , on t he v al ue of

t he s y s t em as a means of enc our agi ng i ndi v i dual s av i ng.

Many member s own t he hous es i n whi c h t hey l i v e, and

ot her s hav e l ar ge ac c umul at i ons i n t he s oc i et y t hat t hey

nev er woul d hav e had but f or t he f ac t t hat t hey wer e

sav ed f or t hem i n i ns ens i bl e s ums .

Anot her mat t er bear i ng on t he i nt er nal management

of s oc i et i es des er v es not i c e, bec aus e v er y i nc or r ec t i deas

of t en pr ev ai l about i t . Thi s . i s t he power s of gener al

meet i ngs , mor e par t i c ul ar l y of s pec i al gener al meet i ngs .

I t s eems of t en t o be s uppos ed t hat t he r es ol ut i ons of

suc h a meet i ng ov er r i de t he dec i s i on of t he c ommi t t ee of

management on mat t er s ex pr es s l y as s i gned t o t hem by

t he r ul es wi t hout any r es er v at i on t o t he member s of a

r ev i s i ng power . But t hi s i s a c ompl et e mi s t ak e. The

r ul es bi nd al l t he member s , and t he ac t s of any of f i c er s

of t he s oc i et y under t he power s gi v en t hem by t he r ul es

hav e t he f or c e of t he r ul es , and c an be s et as i de onl y i n a

way c ons i s t ent wi t h t hem. Wher e t he r ul es ar e s i l ent ,

a s oc i et y , as a body c or por at e, has power t o bi nd i t s

member s by r es ol ut i ons pas s ed at a meet i ng pr oper l y

conv ened unt i l s ome ot her meet i ng s i mi l ar l y aut hor i s ed

r es c i nds or v ar i es t hem. ' But t hes e r es ol ut i ons hav e no

power at al l agai ns t t he r ul es , whi c h r es t upon t he

aut hor i t y of t he Ac t of Par l i ament , and c onf er a l i k e

aut hor i t y on t hos e who ar e ac t i ng under t he power s

der i v ed f r om t hem.

The l as t c as e i s one wher e a mi nor i t y , s t andi ng on

t he r ul es of a s oc i et y , c an c ont r ol a maj or i t y whi c h woul d

ac t i n oppos i t i on t o t hem. But ot her c as es may ar i s e

The Appl i c at i on of Co- oper at i on t o Di s t r i but i on. 113

of a mor e di f f i c ul t k i nd, wher e a mi nor i t y , f i ndi ng i t s el f

ov er r ul ed on s ome poi nt whi c h i t f eel s s t r ongl y — i t may

be t he di s c har ge of a manager i n whom t hey hav e c on-

f i denc e, or , per haps ev en one of s o muc h i mpor t anc e as

a det er mi nat i on t o al l ow s al es on c r edi t

— may be di s -

pos ed t o av ai l t hems el v es of t he power of wi t hdr awal ,

i f t he s oc i et y i s s o c ons t i t ut ed as t o al l ow of i t s ex er c i s e

wi t hout r es t r i c t i on, t o s ec ede f r om t he s oc i et y and f or m

a new one of t hei r own. I t i s s omet i mes as k ed : I s s uc h

conduc t j us t i f i abl e ? The ans wer mus t depend on t he

l i ght i n whi c h we r egar d t he f unc t i ons of c o- oper at i on.

I f c o- oper at i v e s oc i et i es ar e r egar ded onl y as s epar at e

uni t s , eac h s t r i v i ng t o do t he bes t i t c an f or i t s el f , t her e

i s no good r eas on t o be al l eged why t hes e uni t s s houl d

not s pl i t i nt o l es s er uni t s i f any of t he member s c om-

pos i ng t hem t hi nk i t mor e t o t hei r adv ant age s o t o do,

t han t o r emai n par t of t he l ar ger uni t y . But , i f c o-

oper at i on i s what i n t hes e pages i t has been r epr es ent ed

t o be, uni on f or t he pur pos e, by t he j oi nt s t r engt h of i t s

member s , s y s t emat i c al l y t o wor k out f or t he mas s of

mank i nd a s oc i al s t at e hi gher t han any hi t her t o at t ai ned,

t hen what ev er t ends t o weak en t hi s s pi r i t of uni on i s

t r eas on t o t he gr eat c aus e of humani t y ; and, t her ef or e,

al l s uc h s ec es s i ons , s i nc e t hey unques t i onabl y hav e t hi s

t endenc y , mus t s t and c ondemned at t he bar of t hos e

nobl er ai ms whi c h t he c o- oper at or i s bound t o k eep i n

vi ew. Men hav e been dr i v en, unwi l l i ngl y , t o s ec ede

f r om t hos e who hav e endeav our ed t o f or c e upon t hem

pr of es s i ons of bel i ef , c ont r ar y t o t hei r c onv i c t i ons of what i s

t r ue. But no s uc h i nt er f er enc e wi t h t he l i ber t y of t hought

i s t o be f ear ed by t he member s of c o- oper at i v e bodi es ,

Page 59 of 69

whos e di f f er enc es r es ol v e t hems el v es i nt o di f f er enc es of

means f or pr oduc i ng a c ommon end, and s houl d, t her ef or e,

nev er be per mi t t ed t o di v er t t hem f r om t he pr i nc i pl e of

uni on wi t h whi c h t he at t ai nment of t hi s end i s bound up.

H

Chapt er VI I I .

Co- oper at i on i n I t s Appl i c at i on t o Pr oduc t i on.

MANKI ND c annot gener al l y l i v e on di s t r i but i ng.

Onl y a c ompar at i v el y s mal l pr opor t i on of t he

popul at i on, whi c h i t i s t he obj ec t of c o- oper at i v e

di s t r i but i on t o r educ e t o t he s mal l es t number r equi r ed

t o do t hi s wor k , c an t hus l i v e upon t he amount of

pr oduc e t hat ot her men ar e wi l l i ng t o gi v e up t o t hem i n

cons i der at i on of t he s er v i c es t hey r ender i n f ac i l i t at i ng t he

us e of t he r emai nder . But on pr oduc t i on t he mat er i al

wel l - bei ng of t he whol e body of mank i nd depends . The

sum of enj oy abl e t hi ngs whi c h c an be di s t r i but ed among

any popul at i on nec es s ar i l v depends upon t he mas s

of enj oy abl e t hi ngs pr oduc ed. The degr ee of enj oy ment

pl ac ed wi t hi n r eac h of t he body of t he peopl e i n any

l oc al i t y l ar gel y depends on t he c ondi t i ons under whi c h

t he pr oduc t i on c ons t i t ut i ng t he means of t hei r s ubs i s t -

enc e i s c ar r i ed on t her e. Ev en t hei r mor al c har ac t er i s

i nf l uenc ed di r ec t l y or i ndi r ec t l y by t hes e c ondi t i ons ,

whi c h i n c ount l es s way s c ont i nual l y af f ec t ev er y par t of

t hei r l i v es f r om i nf anc y t o ol d age. Henc e t he v as t

i mpor t anc e of c o- oper at i v e pr oduc t i on.

I t i s of t en s ai d, and s ai d t r ul y , t hat t he ev i l s under

whi c h t he poor er pr oduc er s s uf f er ar i s e r at her f r om

def ec t s i n t he di s t r i but i on of t he enj oy abl e t hi ngs now

pr oduc ed t han f r om t he mode of t hei r pr oduc t i on; but

t he i mper f ec t i ons i n di s t r i but i ng al l uded t o i n t hi s

say i ng ar e s c ar c el y t ouc hed, f ar l es s r emedi ed, ] >y t he

sy s t em of c o- oper at i v e di s t r i but i on ex pl ai ned i n t he

l as t c hapt er . For al l t hai ^ hi s y s t em does f or t he

Co- oper at i on i n I t s Appl i c at i on t o Pr oduc t i on. 115

poor er c l as s i s t o mak e t hei r ex i s t i ng i nc omes go a l i t t l e

f ar t her t han t hey woul d ot her wi s e do. I t does not hi ng

at al l t owar ds addi ng t o t hes e i nc omes , ex c ept i n s o f ar

as i t of f er s i nduc ement s t o s av e by mak i ng s av i ng eas y .

" The s t or e, " i t has been s ai d, " i s open t o ev er y one. "

Yes , ev er y one who c an pay f or what i t s uppl i es . " I t s

benef i t s ar e f or al l . " Tr ue, i n pr opor t i on t o t hei r

i ndependent means of appr opr i at i ng t hem. " The l ar ger

a man' s f ami l y , " i t i s ar gued, " t he gr eat er t he adv an-

t ages c onf er r ed on hi m by c o- oper at i v e di s t r i but i on. "

Cer t ai nl y , i f hi s i nc ome gr ows as f as t as hi ? f ami l y . But

t he f ami l y may s t ar v e wi t hout t he s t or e c omi ng i n any

way t o hi s as s i s t anc e. I t s gi f t s ar e s t r i c t l y bounded

by what i t f i r s t r ec ei v es . I t s bount i es ar e al way s f or

" hi m who has , " not f or hi m " who has not " ; t o whom

i t deni es , and, i f i t i s c onduc t ed on s ound pr i nc i pl es ,

mus t deny ev en t hat amount of t r us t whi c h he wi U

of t en r ec ei v e f r om t he pr i v at e t r ader . For he may hope

t o be r ec ouped at s ome f ut ur e day f or al l t hes e adv anc es ,

and has i n t he pr of i t s of hi s bus i nes s a f und, whi c h he

can appl y i n mak i ng t hem, whi l e i n a di s t r i but i v e s oc i et y

t hi s f und i s s t r ongl y pl edged t o pay t he di v i dends due

t o a body of pur c has er s who need no t r us t .

That t he di s t r i but i on of pr of i t s on pur c has es has been

of gr eat adv ant age t o l ar ge bodi es of t he wor k i ng c l as s es ,

f r om t he s av i ngs whi c h t he s y s t em has l ed t hem t o mak e,

I do not f or a moment ques t i on. That number s who,

Page 60 of 69

bef or e t hey bec ame member s of a s t or e nev er had a

shi ni ng but what t hey f or t hwi t h s pent , hav e f ound

t hems el v es t he owner s of many ac c umul at ed pounds

t hr ough t he s av i ngs made by t he s t or e f or t hem out of

t he s hi l l i ngs whi c h t hey s pent at i t , I am f ul l y awar e.

I do not di s put e t he v al ue t o t hem of t hi s r es ul t . St i l l ,

I mus t s ay , t he s t or e wi l l not gi v e t hem t he or i gi nal

shi l l i ngs . They may gr ow r i c h, as t he ol d Yor k s hi r eman

i i 6 Co- oper at i on i n I t s Appl i c at i on t o Pr oduc t i on.

sai d, onl y by eat i ng and dr i nk i ng, but t hey mus t get

el s ewher e t han at t he s t or e wher ewi t hal t o pay f or what

t hey eat and dr i nk . To obt ai n t hi s " wher ewi t hal " by

co- oper at i on, t hey mus t pas s f r om c o- oper at i on f or

di s t r i but i on t o c o- oper at i on f or pr oduc t i on. They mus t

pr es s i nt o t hei r s er v i c e t hat mor e f undament al s or t of

di s t r i but i on at t ac hed t o pr oduc t i on, whi c h det er mi nes

what men s hal l r ec ei v e di r ec t l y i n ex c hange f or t hei r

l abour . They mus t not r es t s at i s f i ed wi t h t he s or t of

di s t r i but i on af f ec t ed by t he di s t r i but i v e s oc i et y , whi c h

si mpl y enabl es t hem t o ex c hange what t hey hav e t hus

ear ned f or ot her t hi ngs whi c h t hey happen t o des i r e.

Thos e who s et t he pr es ent di s t r i but i v e bal l r ol l i ng, t he

j us t l y c el ebr at ed f ounder s of t he Equi t abl e Pi oneer s

Soc i et y of Roc hdal e, c l ear l y def i ned t hi s obj ec t of t he

sy s t em whi c h t hey i nt r oduc ed, i n wor ds of t en r epeat ed,

but s t i l l wel l des er v i ng r epet i t i on, bec aus e by t he c o-

oper at or s of t he pr es ent day t hey ar e f ar t oo muc h

l os t s i ght of . They dec l ar ed t he obj ec t s of t hei r Soc i et y

t o be: —

To f or m ar r angement s f or t he pec uni ar y benef i t and t he

i mpr ov ement of t he s oc i al and domes t i c c ondi t i on of i t s member s ,

by r ai s i ng a s uf f i c i ent amount of c api t al by s har es of

i eac h, t o

br i ng i nt o oper at i on t he f ol l owi ng pl ans and ar r angement s :

— •

1. The es t abl i s hment of a s t or e f or t he s al e of pr ov i s i ons , c l ot hes ,

&c .

2. The bui l di ng, pur c has i ng, or er ec t i ng a number of hous es , i n

whi c h t hos e member s des i r i ng t o as s i s t eac h ot her i n i mpr ov i ng

t hei r domes t i c and s oc i al c ondi t i on may r es i de.

3. To c ommenc e t he manuf ac t ur e of s uc h ar t i c l es as t he s oc i et y

may det er mi ne upon, f or t he empl oy ment of s uc h member s

as may be wi t hout empl oy ment , or who may be s uf f er i ng i n

cons equenc e of r epeat ed r educ t i ons i n t hei r wages .

4. As a f ur t her benef i t and s ec ur i t y t he member s of t he s oc i et y

shal l pur c has e or r ent an es t at e or es t at es of l and, whi c h s hal l

be c ul t i v at ed by t he member s who may be out of empl oy -

ment , or whos e l abour may be badl y r emuner at ed.

Co- oper at i on i n I t s Appl i c at i on t o Pr oduc t i on. uy

5. That as s oon as pr ac t i c abl e t he s oc i et y s hal l pr oc eed t o ar r ange

t he power s of pr oduc t i on, di s t r i but i on, educ at i on, and gov er n-

ment , or , i n ot her wor ds , t o es t abl i s h a s el f - s uppor t i ng home

col ony of uni t ed i nt er es t s , and as s i s t ot her s oc i et i es i n

es t abl i s hi ng s uc h c ol oni es .

They wer e not af r ai d, t hes e " owd " weav er s , of t he

r i di c ul e c er t ai n t o be pour ed by t he unbehev i ng wor l d,

i f t hey t hought t hem wor t h any not i c e, on t he s mal l nes s

of t hei r means , t went y - ei ght s har es of

1 eac h, c on-

Page 61 of 69

t r ast ed wi t h t he gr eat ness of t hei r ends. St i l l l ess

shoul d co- oper at or s dr aw back f r om t hem now. For

t hese ar e t he t r ue ends t o be set bef or e t hemsel ves by al l

who desi r e t o r eal i se t he i deal of co- oper at i on — t he

gr adual subst i t ut i on of a st at e of soci et y r est i ng upon

r easonabl e agr eement det er mi ni ng t he act i on of nat ur al

f or ces, i n pl ace of t he pr esent syst em whi ch r est s on t he

pl ay of nat ur al f or ces, det er mi ned by t he st r uggl e f or

exi st ence. Now, i n t hi s scheme di st r i but i ve co- oper at i on

appear s i n i t s pr oper pl ace, as t he r oad l eadi ng t o pr o-

duct i on, whi ch agai n i s pl aced i n i t s t r ue posi t i on, of a

means t o t he i mpr ovement of domest i c and soci al con-

di t i ons. The i mpot ence of di st r i but i on, t aken al one,

f or ef f ect i ng t he ends of co- oper at i on, i s cl ear l y i ndi cat ed

i n t hi s memor abl e pr ogr amme.

But t he i dea embodi ed i n t he di st r i but i ve st or e i s not

onl y t hus i mpot ent as an i nst r ument of soci al pr ogr ess,

but i f i t gai ns a deci si ve hol d on men' s mi nds, i t may

even become an obst acl e t o t hat pr ogr ess f or t he r easons

f ol l owi ng. The st or e deal s essent i al l y and pr i mar i l y

wi t h t hi ngs. I t s f unct i on i s t o enabl e i t s member s t o

obt ai n t hat of whi ch t hey st and i n need, bet t er i n qual i t y

or cheaper i n pr i ce, or bot h, t han t hey coul d do wi t hout

i t s ai d; and t her e i t s pr oper of f i ce st ops. Di st r i but i ve

soci et i es have, i ndeed, of t en gone beyond t hi s poi nt t o

empl oy t hei r col l ect i ve f unds i n var i ous ways f or t he benef i t

i i 8 Co- oper at i on i n I t s Appl i cat i on t o Pr oduct i on.

of t hei r member s. They have est abUshed conval escent

homes, f or med Hbr ar i es and r eadi ng- r ooms, have pub-

Hshed per i odi cal s, have est abl i shed sci ence and ar t

cl asses, have i nst i t ut ed musi cal and ot her ent er t ai nment s

f or t he advant age of t hei r member s, f or whom pr osper ous

soci et i es commonl y pr ovi de meet i ng pl aces of t hei r own

i n co- oper at i ve haUs. They have gone even f ar t her i n t he

di r ect i on poi nt ed out by t he Rochdal e Pi oneer s, by pur -

chasi ng l ands and bui l di ng houses, t o be sol d t o t hei r

member s and pai d f or by i nst al ment s, spr ead over l ong

per i ods so as t o make t he payment easy, or advanci ng

money t o enabl e t hem t o pur chase l ands or houses, or t o

bui l d houses whi ch shal l be a secur i t y t o t he soci et i es f or

t he r epayment of t hese advances i n a si mi l ar way.

But al l t hese begi nni ngs of col l ect i ve act i on, usef ul as

t hey ar e mor e or l ess i n t hemsel ves, and val uabl e especi al l y

as evi dence of an i nst i nct i ve sense t hat co- oper at i on has

mor e t o do f or t he good of manki nd t han t hat whi ch t he

di st r i but i ve soci et y can suppl y, ar e but f eebl e expr essi ons

of t hat pr of ound human sympat hy, t hat mut ual r egar d

f or each ot her , t hat hi gher spi r i t ual l i f e whi ch, as t hey

const i t ut e t he co- oper at i ve di sposi t i on, i t shoul d be t he

especi al wor k of co- oper at i ve i nst i t ut i ons t o devel op and

spr ead, so f ar as t hi s l i es wi t hi n t he power of any

i nst i t ut i on.

Now, what di st r i but i on cannot do i n t hese r espect s

i t i s t he f unct i on of pr oduct i on t o do, and t hus co-

oper at i on wi l l be r ai sed f r om t he i gnobl e of f i ce of a

uni on mer el y i n or der t o get t hi ngs cheap and good t o

t he nobl e f unct i on of an i nst i t ut i on by whi ch men may

be gr adual l y made bet t er , and t her ef or e bot h happi er

and bet t er of f .

Chapt er I X.

The Pr act i ce of Co- oper at i on i n Soci al Li f e.

CO- OPERATI ON — r egar ded as a syst emat i c cour se

of act i on by whi ch t he mass of t he popul at i on may

Page 62 of 69

gr adual l y r ai se t hemsel ves out of t he evi l s at t endi ng

a soci et y, wher e t he gr eat maj or i t y ar e engaged i n a

ceasel ess st r uggl e t o pr omot e t hei r own i nt er est s wi t hout

r egar d t o t hose of ot her men, t o t he good at t ai nabl e by

a soci et y wher e t he gr eat maj or i t y ar e uni t ed by r eason-

abl e agr eement t o car r y on wor k and pr omot e i nst i t ut i ons

f or t he common i nt er est — nat ur al l y f al l s i nt o t wo gr eat

di vi si ons : —

1. The f or mat i on of a col l ect i ve i ncome — of uni t ed

r esour ces, by whi ch t he weakness of t he i ndi vi dual s

who f or m t he mass may der i ve st r engt h f r om

associ at i on.

2. The empl oyment of t hi s col l ect i ve st r engt h t o cr eat e

new condi t i ons of l i f e, adapt ed t o f ost er t he

exer ci se of mut ual hel p, and di ver t t he spi r i t of

compet i t i ve st r uggl e i nt o di r ect i ons wher e i t may

become usef ul i nst ead of i nj ur i ous.

The f i r st of t hese f unct i ons has been f ul f i l l ed i n Engl and

by t he di st r i but i ve syst em of r et ai l and whol esal e soci et i es,

whi ch, i f car r i ed on upon t he Rochdal e pl an, cr eat e

col l ect i ve i ncome f or t hei r member s ; whi l e t hey ser ve as

excel l ent savi ngs banks, wher e t he economi es pr oduced

by t he suppr essi on of unnecessar y mi ddl emen may be

accumul at ed. I n Ger many t hi s f unct i on has been

di schar ged hi t her t o mai nl y by t he peopl e' s banks. But ,

i n ei t her case, i f co- oper at i ve uni on shoul d st op at t hi s

120 The Pr act i ce of Co- oper at i on i n Soci al Li f e.

st age, i t woul d have ver y i mper f ect l y accompl i shed t he

t ask her e assi gned t o i t . Di st r i but i ve soci et i es and

peopl e' s banks may appl y par t of t he pr of i t s of t hei r

busi ness f or t he f or mat i on of l i br ar i es or r eadi ng- r ooms

f or educat i onal pur poses, or t he const r uct i on of hal l s

wher e soci al as wel l as busi ness gat her i ngs may be hel d;

but t hese oper at i ons l eave t he or di nar y l i ves of t hei r

member s al most unt ouched. So t hey may f aci l i t at e f or

a f ew of t hei r member s t he obt ai ni ng houses of t hei r own

by act i ng as bui l di ng soci et i es f or t he out l ay of t he savi ngs

whi ch t hey have hel ped t hem t o accumul at e. But t hose

who occupy t hese houses, except t hey ar e t hemsel ves

empl oyed by any soci et y, must l ook f or t he means of

l i vi ng i n t hem el sewher e t han t o t he soci et y. And, as

t he soci et i es must r egul at e t hei r own si t uat i on by t he

pl aces wher e t hei r member s f i nd t he means of suppor t i ng

t hemsel ves, t hey can, at t he best , do ver y l i t t l e t owar ds

br i ngi ng wi t hi n t hei r r each t he condi t i ons of l i f e, bet t er

sui t ed t han t he l i f e of our t owns and ci t i es i s, t o f or m men

i nt o bei ngs wor t hy of t hei r vocat i on as chi l dr en of God —

as t he hi ghest mani f est at i on on ear t h of spi r i t ual l i f e.

Hence ar i ses t he i mpor t ance of co- oper at i ve pr oduct i on.

I t i s t he i ndi spensabl e i nt er medi ar y bet ween co- oper at i on

as an agent f or gi vi ng t o t he mass of t he popul at i on t he

power ar i si ng f r om t hei r col l ect i ve i ncome and accumu-

l at ed savi ngs, and co- oper at i on as an i nst r ument t hr ough

whi ch t hi s i ncome and t hese savi ngs may pl ace wi t hi n t he

r each of t hei r possessor s t he l ar gest amount of mat er i al

Page 63 of 69

advant ages at t ai nabl e by t he use of t hei r accumul at ed

r esour ces, combi ned wi t h t he condi t i ons most f avour abl e

t o t he devel opment of t hei r mor al and i nt el l ect ual nat ur es.

Moder n i ndust r y, f r om t he vast scal e on whi ch i t i s

car r i ed on i n i t s manuf act ur i ng cent r es, and t he gr eat

f aci l i t y of conveyance pr oduced by t he ext ensi on of

r ai l r oads, has become, t o a gr eat ext ent , i ndependent of

The Pr act i ce of Co- oper at i on i n Soci al Li f e. 121

pl aces. Wi t h t he except i on of mi nes and quar r i es, whi ch

must necessar i l y be wor ked i n t he l ocal i t i es wher e t he

subst ances t o be ext r act ed f r om t he ear t h ar e f ound, i t

may be sai d gener al l y of any manuf act ur e f or whi ch t her e

i s a good sal e, and t he si t e of t he manuf act or i es may, i n

t he pr esent day, be al most wher ever t hose who car r y t hem

on pl ease, and t he gr ound r equi r ed can be obt ai ned.

Now, si nce t hi s good sal e i s pr eci sel y t hat whi ch

co- oper at i ve uni on woul d have pecul i ar f aci l i t y f or

secur i ng t o co- oper at i ve manuf act ur es, t hose who car r i ed

t hem on mi ght , wi t hout i nj ur y t o t hei r economi cal

pr oduct i on of t he ar t i cl es manuf act ur ed, be gui ded i n t he

choi ce of t hei r si t es f or t hei r bui l di ngs by r ef er ence t o t he

gener al wel l - bei ng of t he i nhabi t ant s. They mi ght pl ace

t hese cent r es of wor k i n pl easant si t uat i ons. They mi ght

cer t ai nl y sur r ound t hem wi t h gar dens, i n whi ch t he

wor ker s, or as many of t hem as ar e so di sposed, mi ght

f i nd an agr eeabl e and pr of i t abl e var i et y i n t hei r l abour s.

And by t aki ng advant age of f avour abl e oppor t uni t i es

t hey mi ght , t hr ough t he acqui si t i on of l ar ger est at es,

combi ne agr i cul t ur e wi t h manuf act ur es. So t hat t hey

woul d begi n t o exer ci se, on an ext ended scal e, t hat

col l ect i ve owner shi p of l and, t hat cl ose connect i on of t he

popul at i on wi t h t he sour ce of t hei r f ood, whi ch, as has

been al r eady poi nt ed out , woul d be t he gr eat secur i t y t o

t he whol e body of wor ker s, t hat , i f t he pr ogr ess of

i nvent i on enabl ed one man t o do what i t r equi r ed t wo t o

do bef or e, t hi s savi ng of l abour shal l wor k t o t he benef i t

of al l wi t hout det r i ment t o any.

I t i s t empt i ng t o cont i nue a pi ct ur e of a wor l d f r ee

f r om t hose soci al evi l s whi ch now aggr avat e t o an

i ncal cul abl e ext ent t he di f f i cul t y of t hat cont est wi t h

sel f i sh desi r es, t he expr essi on i n our sel ves of t he st r uggl e

f or exi st ence per vadi ng al l nat ur al bei ng, whi ch al l of us

must f i ght out i n our own br east s. But t o yi el d t o t hi s

122 The Pr act i ce of Co- oper at i on i n Soci al Li f e.

t empt at i on must car r y us so f ar away f r om t he exi st i ng

st at e of soci et y, t hat t he pi ct ur e woul d be i n danger of

l osi ng al l pr act i cal usef ul ness. I t woul d be a dr eam

bani shed t o t hat gol den age whi ch must al ways f l ee bef or e

t he exper i ence of l i f e, t i l l men l ear n t hat t he heaven f r om

whi ch t he Di vi ne vi si on shal l descend i s t o be sought

wi t hi n t hemsel ves; and t hat t he Ki ngdom of God on

ear t h wi l l come, as soon as t hey hear t i l y wi l l t hat i t shal l

be r eal i sed, hy t he si mpl e met hod of uni t i ng t o gi ve

gener al l y t o t hose ar ound t hem t he advant ages whi ch

t hey seek t o secur e per sonal l y f or t hemsel ves.

Chapt er X.

The Per i l s of Co- oper at i on and How t o

Escape Them.

TO ent er at any l engt h i nt o t he mat t er s f or mi ng t he

t i t l e of t hi s par t woul d be t o r epeat much of what

Page 64 of 69

t he ot her par t s have cont ai ned. I t i s not my

i nt ent i on t o wear y t he r eader by car r 3nng hi m agai n over

t he gr ound we have t r aver sed, but i n a mat t er of such

vi t al i mpor t ance t o t he mass of t he popul at i on as

co- oper at i ve act i on must be, i f i t be r egar ded f r om t he

poi nt of vi ew pr esent ed i n t hese pages, a f ew wor ds t o

sum up t he t eachi ng of t hi s Manual may not be t hr own

away. Li ke t he bar bed head of t he ar r ow, t hey may

hel p t o make t he t hought s, whi ch const i t ut e i t s shaf t

and gi ve f or ce t o t he bl ow, st i ck.

Co- oper at i on, as descr i bed i n t hi s Manual , i s a ser i ous

ef f or t t o uni t e i n t he busi ness of l i f e t he i deal wi t h t he

r eal , or , i n t he l anguage of t he New Test ament , t o r eahse

on ear t h t he " Ki ngdom of God and Hi s r i ght eousness "

i n t he assur ed convi ct i on t hat al l el se shal l be added t o

t hose who t hus pl ace t hemsel ves i n har mony wi t h t he

al l - sust ai ni ng power , t hat Di vi ne uni t y on whi ch t he

i nf i ni t e di f f er ences of i ndi vi dual exi st ence r est , and of

whi ch t hey ar e t he expr essi on. Co- oper at i on wi l l be

hel ped by what ever pr omot es t hi s di sposi t i on. I t wi l l

be hi nder ed by what ever checks i t . I t s danger and i t s

saf et y depend on t he absence or pr esence of t hi s spi r i t ;

of uni t y.

I t has been t he obj ect of t hi s wor k t o t r ace how t hat

spi r i t can r eahse i t sel f i n t he busy wor l d of i ndust r y

124 ^^^^ Per i l s of Co- oper at i on and Hoi v t o Escape Them.

whi ch, i n moder n t i me! ^, has assumed such gi gant i c and

ever - gr owi ng pr opor t i ons. I t s wr i t er s have endeavour ed

t o poi nt out t hat t he means f or ef f ect i ng t hi s r eahsat i on

he r eady t o our hands ; t hat , i n our days and our count r y,

t hey r equi r e no sweepi ng changes i n exi st i ng i nst i t ut i ons ;

no vi ol ent r evol ut i ons ; no r ei gns of t er r or ; no al t er at i on

of t he l aw, ext or t ed by t he many f r om t he f ear s of t he

f ew. On t he cont r ar y, i t has been ar gued t hat any

at t empt of t hi s nat ur e woul d i nt er f er e wi t h and t hwar t

t he pr ogr ess of co- oper at i on, by dest r oyi ng t hat peacef ul

at mospher e of l aw- abi di ng act i vi t y, i n whi ch al one t he

i nst i t ut i ons, whence we l ook f or t hese r esul t s, can gr ow

up and t hr i ve.

That , by t he wi se empl oyment of t hese f unds, i n

bet t er i ng t he dwel l i ngs of t he pr oducer s, and pr ovi di ng

agai nst t he cont i ngenci es of l i f e, t hat t hey make t he

pr of i t s of pr oduct i on secur e f or one gr oup of wor ker s

af t er anot her t he comf or t s and advant ages whi ch, as

now used, t hey can best ow on a f ew onl y, but best ow

on t hem i n a super abundance det r i ment al t o t he hi gher

l i f e of t he spi r i t r at her t han conduci ve t o i t . And

t hat t hus, by t he gr adual accumul at i on of weal t h and

t he owner shi p of l and whi ch nat ur al l y f ol l ows i t , t hey

may at t ai n, by a pr ocess of peacef ul evol ut i on, t hat

col l ect i ve pr oper t y of t he soi l and t he i nst r ument s of

l abour whi ch ar e necessar y f or economi c emanci pat i on.

Looked at i n i t s successi ve st eps, t he pat h t o t he

emanci pat i on of l abour by conver t i ng t he capi t al

i ndi spensabl e t o i t s act i vi t y f r om an exact i ng mast er

i nt o an obedi ent ser vant seems, and i ndeed i s, easy;

but onl y on condi t i on t hat i t be f ol l owed i n a spi r i t

t hor oughl y co- oper at i ve. For , doubt l ess, t he way i s

l ong, f ar l onger t han wi l l al l ow any of t he gener at i on

now al i ve ever t o see mor e t han t he begi nni ng of t he end.

Onl y a compar at i vel y f ew, and t hese except i onal l y

The Per i l s of Co- oper at i on and How t o Escape Them. 125

f avour ed, may succeed by t hei r unassi st ed ef f or t s i n

Page 65 of 69

r eachi ng t he desi r ed goal . I t may be l ost f or t he

many, t hr ough t hat sel f i sh i mpat i ence f or i mmedi at e

r esul t s, whi ch r ef uses t o sow t he seed because i t cannot

expect t o r eap t he cor n. And pr eci sel y her e l i es t he

gr eat est danger t o co- oper at i ve ef f or t .

Co- oper at i on has pr osper ed hi t her t o i n Br i t ai n under

t he f or m of uni on f or di st r i but i on, as i t has pr osper ed

i n Ger many under t he f or m of uni on f or peopl e' s banks,

gr eat l y because so many per sons have f ound t hei r

i mmedi at e i ndi vi dual advant age i n t he ef f ect s of t he

uni on or i gi nat ed by t hose who had hi gher obj ect s i n

vi ew.

The di st r i but i ve st or e has gi ven t o al l who j oi ned i t

not onl y ar t i cl es on whi ch t hey can r el y t hat t hey ar e

what t he} ^ pr of ess t o be, but an i ncr eased power of buyi ng

t hese ar t i cl es. When t hey ar e f or med on t he Rochdal e

pl an t hey have gi ven t hem, besi des, admi r abl e savi ngs

banks — banks whi ch save f or t hem wi t hout t i oubl e,

and can af f or d t o pay at l east one- t hi r d mor e i nt er est

t han or di nar y savi ngs banks, wi t h a secur i t y whi ch,

i n soci et i es t hat have out l i ved t he per i l s of i nf ancy,

may j ust l y cl ai m compar i son wi t h t hat of any ot her

banks. So t he peopl e' s banks of Ger many have pr osper ed

because t he conf i dence i nspi r ed by t hem has enabl ed

t hei r member s t o deal wi t h l oan capi t al much l ar ger

t han t hei r own capi t al , f or t he use of whi ch t hey pai d

much l ess t han t hey r ecei ved f r om t hi s use; and t hus

have added t o t he savi ngs f r om t hei r own i ncome

t he ear ni ngs of a busi ness at once saf e and pr of i t abl e.

Each of t hese i nst i t ut i ons, t her ef or e, f ound suppor t i n

t hat pr i nci pl e of di r ect sel f - i nt er est , t o f ol l ow whi ch i t

cost s U3 no ef f or t , because i t bel ongs t o our nat ur e as

ani mal s, and i s kept i n const ant t r ai ni ng by t he st r uggl es

of compet i t i ve soci et y.

126 The Per i l s of Co- oper at i on and How t o Escape Them.

To conf i ne our sel ves t o our own case — t hat , under

t hese ci r cumst ances t hi s f i r st st ep i n co- oper at i ve pr o-

gr ess — uni on f or t he accumul at i on of capi t al — shoul d

have been t aken by t he l ar ge number who have t aken

i t i s not mor e t han mi ght have been r easonabl y expect ed

t o happen, as soon as t he eyes of t he consumi ng publ i c

became opened t o what t he l at e John St uar t Mi l l saw

ver y cl ear l y, namel y, t he ver y l ar ge shar e of t he t ot al

pr oduce of l abour act ual l y used up by t he char ge f or

di st r i but i ng t he r emai nder . But t he case ent i r el y

changes when we pass f r om di st r i but i on t o pr oduct i on.

The br i dge whi ch t he pr of i t s on pr oduct i on woul d

al l ow t he wor ker s t o bui l d over t he r i ver of pover t y

t hat now separ at es t hem f r om t he advant ages of weal t h

i s bar r ed by t he t wi n gi ant s. I ndi vi dual Sel f - seeki ng

and Col l ect i ve I ndi f f er ence, t he l ast - named bei ng t he

most f or mi dabl e.

How, t hen, can we over come t he i ndi f f er ence ot t he

masses t o t hat empl oyment of capi t al whi ch i s i ndi spen-

sabl e t o t he i mpr ovement of t hei r posi t i on wi t hout

at t empt i ng t he i mpr act i cabl e t ask of suppl j ' i ng t hem

wi t h t he f r ui t bef or e t he t r ee i s gr own ?

Ther e appear t o be t wo possi bl e ways t o t hi s end —

one i nwar d and t he ot her out war d ; t he second dependent

on t he f i r st .

By unwear i ed per sever i ng appeal s t o t he pr i nci pl e

of uni t y i t may be possi bl e t o di f f use among men mor e

gener al l y t he f eel i ng t hat a l i f e of per pet ual st r uggl e

af t er obj ect s whi ch per i sh i n t he usi ng must be pet t y,

i gnobl e, and unsat i sf yi ng; but t hat l i f e may become

Page 66 of 69

gr eat and nobl e i f i t i s br ought i nt o const ant har mony

wi t h t hat Di vi ne spi r i t whi ch dwel l s i n t hose who ar e

ani mat ed by l ove of t hei r f el l ow- men. By t he appeal

t o r eason and exper i ence i t may at t he same t i me be

possi bl e t o spr ead t he convi ct i on t hat onl y by means

The Per i l s of Co- oper at i on and How t o Escape Them. 127

v; f i nst i t ut i ons sui t abl e t o t he exer ci se of t hi s spi r i t

can i t become a per vadi ng i nf l uence i n t he or di nar y

l i ves of or di nar y men. The pr obl ems of soci al r ef or m

depend f or t hei r sol ut i on upon t he j oi nt oper at i on of

bot h t hese pr i nci pl es. Wi t hout t he l ast men cannot

see what t o do; wi t hout t he f i r st t hey cannot obt ai n

t he st r engt h t o do what t hey have l ear ned t o see shoul d

be done. That t he wor k of di f f usi ng t hi s doubl e con-

vi ct i on wi l l be easy I do not say. But t her e i s i n t he

r ul i ng t endency of t he pr esent age — i t s sci ent i f i c spi r i t —

a char act er i st i c whi ch may make t hi s wor k easi er .

Man has al ways been ur ged by t he demands of hi s

spi r i t ual bei ng t o seek f or cer t ai nt y— f or t hat whi ch may

be sur el y known and r el i ed on. But t hr oughout vast

r egi ons and dur i ng l ong ages he has sought t hi s r el i abl e

knowl edge i n af f i r mat i ons about unseen wor l ds, wher e

no t est i mony of sense exi st s t o qual i f y t he asser t i ons

of hi s i magi nat i on; whence he coul d assi gn t o t hese

i magi nar y cr eat i ons qual i t i es of gr andeur and per -

manence, capaci t y of conf er r i ng i nf i ni t e happi ness or

unendi ng pai n, bef or e whi ch ear t h, wi t h i t s t r ansi t or y

j oys and sor r ows, necessar i l y f ades i nt o i nsi gni f i cance.

Eur opean l i f e has been no except i on t o t hi s di sposi t i on.

On t he cont r ar y, i n what we cal l t he Mi ddl e Ages,

i t excer ci sed over al l Eur opean t hought t he pr of oundest

i nf l uence, as anyone may r eal i se who wi l l r ead t he

Di vi na Commedi a of Dant e, and r emember t hat t he

uni ver se depi ct ed t her e i s t he uni ver se i n whi ch Dant e

and hi s cont empor ar i es f i r ml y bel i eved. I n Eur ope

t hen, no l ess t han i n Asi a, among t he Br ahmi ns,

Buddhi st s, or Mahomet ans, t he al l - i mpor t ant i nqui r y

wi t h t hose who r ose above sl aver y t o ani mal passi ons

was: WTi at shal l I do t o at t ai n t he i nf i ni t e j oys or escape

t he i nf i ni t e pai ns of t hi s t r ue r eal i t y — t he l ast i ng exi st ence

whi ch i s t o succeed my pr esent f ugi t i ve bei ng ? The

128 The Per i l s of Co- oper at i on and How t o Escape Them.

pecul i ar i t y of t he Chr i st i an answer , on whi ch my hopes

f or t he f ut ur e of manki nd r est , has been t hat i t al ways

i ncl uded t he posi t i on: You must st r i ve t o become i n

spi r i t l i ke t hat Di vi ne Bei ng of whom t he Gospel t el l s

us. Hence ar ose, as i s obser ved i n t he f i r st chapt er

of t hi s Manual , t hose count l ess wor ks of benevol ence

by whi ch t he nat i ons pr of essedl y Chr i st i an have been

and ar e di st i ngui shed f r om al l ot her nat i ons of whose

hi st or y we have any r ecor d. Hence must come,

accor di ng t o my convi ct i on, t hat per sever i ng det er mi na-

t i on t o wor k out t he del i ver ance of manki nd f r om t he

evi l s pr oduced by compet i t i ve sel f i shness, whi ch con-

st i t ut es t he i deal of co- oper at i on. The mor al st r engt h

r equi r ed t o do t hi s wor k t hor oughl y must , i n my

j udgment , be der i ved f r om t hat f ai t h i n t he mani f est at i on

of t he Di vi ne, f r om whi ch t he good wor ks of t he Chr i st i an

wor l d have ei t her di r ect l y pr oceeded, or t o whi ch t hey

may be t r aced t hr ough t he i ndi r ect i nf l uence of t he

ment al at mospher e whi ch t hi s f ai t h has cr eat ed. But

f or t he di r ect i on of t hi s mor al f or ce t o wor k out t he

col l ect i ve benef i t of manki nd we shal l be i ndebt ed, I

concei ve, mai nl y, t o t he r esul t s of moder n sci ent i f i c

r esear ch.

Page 67 of 69

Thi s sci ent i f i c t hought desi r es t o at t ai n cer t ai nt y as

ar dent l y as t he t hought of any pr evi ous age. But i t has

l ai d down as a maxi m not t o be quest i oned t hat cer t ai nt y

can be at t ai ned onl y t hr ough t he ver i f i cat i on of t he i deal

by t he r eal ; onl y i n pr opor t i on t o our power of t est i ng

what we i magi ne by what we can obser ve, t r ai ni ng our -

sel ves up t o t he di f f i cul t t ask of expl ai ni ng what i s,

i nst ead of l aunchi ng out i nt o t he f r ee const r uct i on of

what we onl y suppose t o be. I t i s cl ear t hat t o such a

di sposi t i on t he i nvi si bl e wor l d of t he Mi ddl e Ages,

i nst ead of bei ng, as i t was t o t he t hi nker s of t hose ages,

t he t r ue r eal i t y, must beconi e unr eal ar i d wor t hl ess. I t

The Per i l s of Co- oper at i on and How t o Escape Them. 129

i s a mat t er about whi ch t he sci ent i f i c t hi nker can have

no i nchnat i on t o busy hi msel f , si nce hi s r esear ches have

dest r oyed t he onl y mot i ve t hat coul d have l ed hi m t o

pay at t ent i on t o af f i r mat i ons wl i i ch he cannot t est —

t he convi ct i on t hat t hose who made t hem had access t o

some sour ce of knowl edge deni ed t o hi msel f — f or t hese

r esear ches have pr oved t o hi m t hat t hose who made t he

asser t i ons wer e ent i r el y i gnor ant of t he const i t ut i on of

t he wor l d i n whi ch t hey act ual l y l i ved. Ast r onomy and

geol ogy, t o say not hi ng of ot her sci ences, have swept

away t he uni ver se of t he Di vi na Commedi a. " I t l i ves

no l onger i n t he f ai t h of r eason. " How i s i t possi bl e f or

t he sci ent i f i c t hi nker t o pl ace any conf i dence i n af f i r ma-

t i ons about an i nvi si bl e wor l d made by men who can be

pr oved t o have been ent i r el y mi st aken i n what t hey

af f i r med about t he vi si bl e wor l d ? Necessar i l y t he

sci ent i f i c t hi nker must di smi ss t he whol e subj ect f r om

hi s mi nd, and concent r at e hi s t hought s upon t hat about

whi ch al one he has t he hope of at t ai ni ng t o any cer -

t ai nt y — t he ear t h and t he uni ver se i n whi ch i t has a pl ace.

But does i t , t her ef or e, f ol l ow t hat t he t endenci es of

sci ent i f i c t hought ar e onl y " of t he ear t h ear t hy. " By

no means. I t i s t he obj ect of t he sci ent i f i c i nqui r er t o

appr ehend t he uni ver se i n whi ch he f i nds hi msel f as i t

i s; t o t r ace back i t s phenomena t o t he power s t hat

act ual l y under l i e t hem, of whi ch t hey ar e r eal l y t he

expr essi on. I f , as i s mai nt ai ned i n t hese pages, t he human

r ace, as i t i s cer t ai nl y t he l at est st age of an enor mous

ser i es of devel opment s, so i s al so t hat f or m of i ndi vi dual

bei ng i n whi ch t he uni ver sal l i f e r et ur ns, so t o speak^

i nt o i t sel f , by t he vol unt ar y act of t he i ndi vi dual wi l l ,

mer gi ng t he ani mal desi r e f or sel f i sh gr at i f i cat i on i n an

unsel f i sh desi r e f or t he gener al good, we must expect

t hat t he pat i ent and honest sear ch af t er t he key t o t he

ser i es wi l l l ead t he sear cher s t o t hi s t r ue sol ut i on oi

13 ) The Per i l s of Co- oper at i on and How t o Escape Them.

t hei r i nvest i gat i ons. And, as mi ght be ant i ci pat ed, so

i t has been. Fr om var i ous t hi nker s who t ake t hei r

st and on t he sci ent i f i c basi s, r ef usi ng t o Hst en t o t he

voi ce of any mast er but t hat of t hei r own r eason, deahng

wi t h t he mat er i al s gi ven her by obser vat i on — t hi nker s

who must be cl assed among t he most f ear l ess assai l ant s

of t r adi t i onal bel i ef s — comes t he concur r ent t est i mony

t hat i n t he negat i on of sel f i shness, i n al t r ui sm, i n t he

pl aci ng our own good not onl y i n what we r ecei ve f r om

ot her s, but i n what we can do f or t hem, l i es t he t r ue

wel f ar e of man, i ndi vi dual l y as wel l as col l ect i vel y; hi s

r eal wor k upon ear t h; t he t r ue end of hi s bei ng. How

i s he t o at t ai n t hi s end, t o do t hi s wor k, t o gr asp t hi s

wel l - bei ng ? Can any ot her answer be gi ven bear i ng

even a show of pr obabi l i t y t han t hi s — by uni on, i n or der

t o make t he enor mous and yet const ant l y i ncr easi ng

command over nat ur al f or ces now possessed by men,

pr oduct i ve of t he whol e body of manki nd of t he gr eat est

Page 68 of 69

at t ai nabl e amount of t hose advant ages whi ch t he ear t h

can of f er t o t hem; whi l e t hr ough t he same pr i nci pl e of

uni on, t he ext er nal el ement may become t he nur ser j - and

t r ai ni ng school of t hose nobl e i nner qual i t i es, whose

gr owt h t he pr esent compet i t i ve st r uggl e f or i ndi vi dual

possessi on t ends t o st i f l e.

I have not i ced t he change i n medi aeval modes of

concept i on made by moder n sci ence, i n t he ext ent t o

whi ch i t t ur ns men' s t hought s away f r om t he wor l d not

mani f est ed t o our senses t o f i x t hem on t hat whi ch i s

t hus mani f est ed. Let me obser ve al so t hat , i n so doi ng,

sci ent i f i c t hought r eal l y br i ngs us back t o t hat mode of

t hought by whi ch t he Bi bl e, Ol d and New Test ament

al i ke, i s per vaded, t hough, no doubt , wi t h t he modi f i ca-

t i ons bel ongi ng t o t he di f f er ence bet ween our concep-

t i on, t hat t he Di vi ne act i on, or what we cal l nat ur e, i s

essent i al l y unchangi ng under al l ci r cumst ances, and t he

The Per i l s of Co- oper at i on and How t o Escape Them. 131

Bi bl i cal concept i on, t hat i t changes as human act i on

does, accor di ng t o ci r cumst ances. The Bi bl e i s f ul l

f r om begi nni ng t o end of t he deepest t r ust i n t he unseen

pr esence wi t h man of t hat gr eat Bei ng, t o whose wi l l i t

t r aces al l phenomena. But t hi s wi l l i s, accor di ng t o t he

Bi bl e, a wi l l t o be r eal i sed on ear t h. The Jewi sh pr ophet s

l ook f or war d, wi t h ever - br i ght eni ng hope, t o t he gl or i es

of t he r ei gn of t he Messi ah. But t hi s r ei gn i s t o have i t s

seat at Jer usal em, whence i t s bl essi ngs ar e t o f l ow over

al l nat i ons. The New Test ament t akes up t he same

st r ai n. The Lor d' s Pr ayer cal l s on us t o hope, and desi r e

t hat t he wi l l of God be done on ear t h as i n heaven. The

Apocal j ' pse, af t er a pr el i mi nar y t housand year s' r ei gn

of t he sai nt s, pr ecedi ng t he f i nal st r uggl e of evi l agai nst

good, br i ngs down t he Heavenl y Jer usal em, t he Templ e

of t he Li vi ng God, t o ear t h, among t he nat i ons, f or whose

" heal i ng " t he " l eaves " of t he t r ees whi ch gr ow al ong

t he banks of t he r i ver of l i f e f l owi ng f r om t he Di vi ne

t hr one ar e dest i ned. Looki ng, as I do, upon t he whol e

devel opment of exi st ence upon ear t h, cr owned by t he

hi st or y of man, as t he cont i nuous mani f est at i on of t he

Et er nal I nvi si bl e Power , who woul d l ead men t o t hat

co- wor ki ng wi t h Hi msel f i n whi ch al one t hei r act i vi t y

wi l l f i nd ent i r e sat i sf act i on, I cannot but consi der t hi s

ear t hwar d t r ack of sci ence as dest i ned t o br i ng pi et y

back t o t he spher e of Bi bl i cal t hought s and aspi r at i ons,

and t each i t t o f i nd i t s abi di ng r ewar d i n ear nest ef f or t s

t o spr ead t he ki ngdom of God over t he ear t h by cr eat i ng

such condi t i ons of human l i f e, as good men can f eel t o be

wor t hy of t hi s ki ngdom; t he f i t expr essi on of t he spi r i t

of Hi m whose name i s Love. How t hey mi ght r eal i se

t hese condi t i ons, and t hat i n a ver y f ew year s, i f onl y t hey

wi l l , t hese pages endeavour ed t o show. May t hey hel p

t o f or war d t hat gr eat consummat i on by showi ng t o t he

wi l l a pr act i cabl e way.

132 The Per i l s of Co- oper at i on and How t o Escape Them.

Thi s i s t he i nt er nal r oad t o associ at i on on whi ch t he

ext er nal r oad necessar i l y depends. For , unquest i onabl y,

t he out war d must gr ow out of t he i nwar d ; t he wi l l t o act

must pr ecede t he act i on; and t he wi l l t o wor k wi t h

per sever i ng ener gy f or t he cr eat i on of a t r ul y Messi ani c

condi t i on on ear t h, must be det er mi ned t o under t ake

t hi s wor k by t he convi ct i on t hat such a condi t i on can

be r eal i sed. But assumi ng t hat t hi s i nner power i s

br ought i nt o per sever i ng act i vi t y among a body of men

numer ous enough t o make t hei r act i on per cept i bl e, t her e

woul d come i nt o pl ay a second f or ce, not t o be despi sed,

whi ch I have cal l ed t he ext er nal r oad t o associ at i on,

Page 69 of 69

namel y, t he hel p gi ven t o t he pr ogr ess of t he i deal by

t hose who never woul d have or i gi nat ed i t , who have,

st r i ct l y speaki ng, no f ai t h i n i t ; men who ai d i t onl y

because i t ai ds t hem, and whose conduct i s, i n t r ut h, an

i l l ust r at i on of t he sayi ng, " Not hi ng succeeds l i ke

success. "

Men' s mi nds, f or t he most par t , r esembl e soi l : t hey

r espond t o ski l f ul cul t i vat i on. Thi s i s t he t r ut h t hat

Rober t Owen l ai d hol d of , and embodi ed i n hi s doct r i ne

of men' s char act er s bei ng f or med by ci r cumst ances, whi ch

at New Lanar k, wher e he r eal l y di d moul d t hese ci r cum-

st ances i n a gr eat measur e af t er hi s own i deas, pr oduced

mar vel l ous r esul t s; f ai l i ng af t er war ds because, i n f act ,

whi l e he t al ked about cont r ol l i ng ci r cumst ances, t hey

cont r ol l ed hi m, and made, i f not hi msel f , yet at l east hi s

i nst i t ut i ons, i l l ust r at e hi s own t heor y.

To sum up what has been her e ar gued: co- oper at i on,

r egar ded as a syst em of soci al r ef or m, has t wo gr eat

per i l s, on ei t her of whi ch i t may be wr ecked.

I . The i mpat i ence of t he masses f or some f or m of

soci et y l ess oppr essi ve t o t hem t han t he syst em of

i ndust r y based on compet i t i ve st r uggl es must be, may

l ead t hem t o wast e t hei r ener gi es i n vai n at t empt s at

The Per i l s of Co- oper at i on and How t o Escape Them. 133

r eachi ng t hi s bet t er st at e by a shor t cut t hr ough t he mer e

wi l l of t he gr eat er number , expr essed i n pol i t i cal or soci al

changes.

2. I ndi f f er ence may st i f l e, or scept i ci sm par al yse, t he

at t empt t o bui l d up t hi s bet t er st at e by hi gher f or ms of

soci al i nst i t ut i ons f r eel y de\ ' el oped.

The \ \ d. y t o escape f r om bot h danger s i s r eal l y t he same,

namel y: t o per suade men i nt o choosi ng t hi s bet t er way

by cl ear l y poi nt i ng out wher e i t l i es; showi ng t he

f aci l i t i es whi ch exi st i ng ci r cumst ances of f er f or ent er i ng

upon i t ; and t he cl ear i ndi cat i ons on many si des of t he

success t hat must f ol l ow t he at t empt i f i t i s made wi sel y

and per sever i ngt y.